
Book .KaSi_: 



House Doc. No. 368. 



Frontispiece. 




Royal Palms (Oreodoxa regia). 



56th Congress, ) HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, j Document 

2d Session. j 1 No. 368. 



Bulletin No. 95. 



382 



U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS, 

A. C. TRUE, Director. 



REPORT 



ON THE 



AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES AND CAPABILITIES OF HAWAII. 



BY 



^^M. O. STUBBS, Ph. D., 

Director, Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Stations 



January 24, 1901. — Message and accompanying papers ordered printed 
and referred to Committee on Territories. 




WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

1901. 



fA 



'*3 \ 



^■ 



0? 






To the Seriate and House of Hejyresentatives: 

I transmit herewith a report on investigations of the agricultural 
resources and capabilities of the Hawaiian Islands, with special refer- 
ence to the establishment of an agricultural experiment station in 
those islands, made in accordance with the act of Congress making- 
appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year 
ending June 30, 1901. 

The attention of Congress is called to the request of the Secretary 
of Agriculture that 2,000 copies of the report be printed for the use 
of the Department of Agriculture. 

William McKinlet. 
Executive Mansion, 

January ^^, 1901. 
2 



JUM 2? 1901 
D. ofD, 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 



Department of Agriculture. 

Office of the Secretary. 

Washington^ D. 6*1, January 10, 1901. 

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the agricul- 
tural resources and capabilities of the Hawaiian Islands with special 
reference to the establishment of agricultural experiment stations 
therein. This investigation was made preliminary to the establish- 
ment of an experiment station, as provided for in the appropriation 
act for this Department, approved Mav 25, 1900. The urgent neces- 
sity for an expeiiment station in the Hawaiian Islands is shown by the 
statements in the accompanying report, and I respectfully concur in 
the recommendations of the Director of the Office of Experiment 
Stations and earnestly recommend that Congress provide for the 
maintenance of the station as is done for the stations in other States 
and Territories. 

If this report is printed by Congress, I suggest that 2,000 copies be 
furnished this Department for its use. 

I have the honor to be, sir, your obedient servant, 

Ja:>ies Wilson, 

Secretary. 

The President. 

3 



LETTER OF TRANSMITFAL. 



U. S. Department of Agriculture, 

Office of Experiment Stations, 
WasMngto7i, D. C, January 10, 1901. 
Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith a report upon agricul- 
tural conditions and capabilities of the Hawaiian Islands. This 
investigation was made as a preliminary to the establishment of an 
agricultural experiment station, as provided in the appropriation act 
for this Department, approved May 25, 1900. As the agent for making 
these investigations, the Department was fortunate in securing the 
services of Dr. W. C. Stubbs, director of the Louisiana Agricultural 
Experiment Stations. Dr. Stubbs is thoroughly familiar with the 
experiment stations of the country, and in his capacity as director of 
the three experiment stations in Louisiana has familiarized himself 
with the agriculture of tropical and semitropical regions throughout 
the world. Dr. Stubbs visited the islands in Jul}^ and August of the 
past 3"ear, acting under the following instructions: 

The following subjects should be included in your investigations: 
First. The general agricultural conditions existing in the Hawaiian Islands, and 
the necessary and feasible measures for the improvement of these conditions. 

Second. The location most suitable for an agricultural experiment station. In 
this connection you should determine — 

(1) Whether it is feasible and desirable to unite the Government station with the 
Hawaiian experiment station already established at Honolulu, the basis of the union 
to be as follows: 

(o) The Department to secure possession through gift or purchase of property 
now owned by the Hawaiian expermient station and add thereto as the 
requirements of new work may demand. 
[h) The Department to assume entire charge of the station, appointing the 
director and other officers as its agents, and becoming responsible for 
all work and expenditures, 
(c) The Department to undertake and pay for investigations other than those 
relating to sugar cane and sugar making; the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' 
Association to continue to pay for the investigations on sugar cane and 
sugar making, contributing therefor a lump sum annually, to be spent 
under the direction of this Department. (This arrangement will be 
similar to that made by the Sugar Planters' Association in Louisiana 
with the experiment station in that State. ) 
{d) The Department to publish and distribute bulletins and reports of all 
work, as is done in other parts of the United States. 

5 



6 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 

(2) Whether it is desirable and feasible to connect the station with the agricul- 
tural department of the Kamehameha Manual Training School at Honolulu. 

(3) What other plan for establishing a station should be adopted in case it is not 
expedient to unite with either of the above existing institutions. 

This question of location is one of the most important subjects for your investiga- 
tion. The Department must control the land before operations can be undertaken. 
You should ascertain what Government land, if any, is available which could be set 
aside for this purpose, its adaptability, convenience, and water supply. 

Third. In case a union with the existing Hawaiian experiment station seems 
feasible, an estimate should be made of the value of the buildings, land, equipment, 
etc., which would come into the possession of the Government station. If it seems 
best to inaugurate the work on an independent basis, the buildings, land, and equip- 
ment which would be needed should be determined, and estimates made regarding 
their cost, with special reference to the sum required for these purposes during the 
fiscal year ending June 30, 1901. The methods of acquiring real estate for the use of 
the station should also be investigated. 

Fourth. The cost of inaugurating and maintaining an agricultural experiment 
station and disseminating information (exclusive of the buildings, land, and equip- 
ment) in a manner similar to that of an agricultural experiment station in one of the 
United States having an approximate area. In this connection, the staff which will 
be needed, persons available for such work, the approximate salaries paid in the 
islands to persons engaged in similar occupation, and other points bearing on the 
cost of maintenance should receive attention. 

Fifth. The lines of experimental work which should be undertaken in the Hawaiian 
Islands, and especially those which should be underta,ken in the immediate future. 
In this connection reference should be had to lines of agriculture other than the 
main crop of the islands. Sugar cane will naturally receive some attention from the 
new station, but it seems quite likely that there are other branches of agriculture to 
which the islands are adapted and in which investigation is quite as much needed. 
It has been stated, for example, that the Hawaiians buy their vegetables to consider- 
able extent from California. You should determine what prospect there is for 
investigations in the growing of vegetables, and likewise in the growing of a variety 
of field crops for human food and for animals; experiments in the feeding and manag- 
ing of animals, etc. According to reports from authentic sources, in no other place 
is so much money expended in securing water for irrigation by pumping. Some of 
the pumps are raising 30,000,000 gallons of water per day from a depth of 500 feet, 
using coal that costs $10 per ton. The expense of irrigating in some cases reaches as 
high as §125 per acre per year. The cost of water has led to some study of its effec- 
tive distribution. You should endeavor to determine to what extent experiments in 
the use and economy of irrigation water might profitably form a feature of the work 
of the new station. 

Sixth. What is the best means of diffusing information on agricultural subjects 
among the people, and of demonstrating to them the advantage of improved methods 
of agriculture? 

On arriving at Honolulu you should immediately consult with the governor of the 
islands and such other officials as may be in a position to aid you in your investiga- 
tions. You should also consult with representative residents of the islands who 
are prominently identified with the agricultural interests. You will please assure 
all persons with whom you come in contact, who are interested in the agricultural 
development of the islands, that it is the desire of the honorable Secretary of Agri- 
culture to secure such information as will enable him to inaugurate agricultural 
investigations which will most generally benefit the agriculture of the islands, and 
that the Department is always glad to receive information regarding the agricultural 
needs of different localities, and suggestions regarding the measures necessary for the 
improvement of existing agricultural conditions. 



LETTER OF TEANSMITTAL. 7 

Dr. Stubbs's report is herewith presented. In this report an exhaust- 
ive review is given of the agriculture of the islands in its many 
branches. Owing to the unusually favorable conditions, sugar grow- 
ing is not only the leading agricultural occupation, but is the princi- 
pal industry of the islands, the exports of sugar being more than 80 
per cent of the total exports of the islands. At present this industry 
is in a very prosperous condition, but other agricultural industries are 
either not well developed or are not in profitable condition. Coffee 
growing is diminishing, and the other large agricultural crop, rice, is 
not grown on up-to-date principles. Stock raising is conducted to 
some extent, but there is need of improved stock and better pasturage. 
Dairying as an adjunct to agriculture is almost unknown, and dairy 
products exceedingly expensive. Parts of the islands have been 
denuded of their forests to the great detriment of the country, and 
these areas should be reforested. In many parts of the islands, espe- 
cially at or near the coast on the western or leeward sides of the 
islands, irrigation must be practiced to successfully produce good 
crops. Much of this is done by pumping from artesian wells, and 
there is evidence to show that the methods practiced are extremely 
wasteful. Little has been done in the islands in the way of vegetable 
and fruit growing for market purposes, except with bananas and pine- 
apples. The little that has been attempted shows that almost every 
kind of fruit and vegetable may be grown somewhere upon the islands. 
For supplying this class of produce, California and other parts of the 
Pacific coast are now drawn upon. 

As is shown by the report, there is a great necessity for the estab- 
lishment of an experiment station in the islands, in order that the 
problems of diversified agriculture may be given attention. No neces- 
sity exists for immediate consideration of the sugar industry, as there 
is already established a well-equipped station, maintained by the Sugar 
Planters' Association. This station is devoted to the study of manifold 
problems that arise in cane growing and sugar manufacture. 

The instructions given above required an investigation into the feasi- 
bility and desirability of uniting the proposed Government station with 
some institution already established. The two institutions that com- 
mended themselves were the experiment station of the Sugar Planters' 
Association and the Kamehameha Training School. Conferences were 
held with the governing boards of these institutions, but no practical 
means for combination with either were found. It is therefore recom- 
mended that an independent experiment station be established adjoining 
the city of Honolulu, and experiments begun in diversified agricul- 
ture. A cordial spirit of cooperation for the establishment of a station 
was shown our agent by officials and residents of Hawaii, and it is 
believed that much benefit will accrue from the scientific study of the 
problems there presented for investigation. 



8 LETTEK OF TEANSMITTAL. 

For the immediate use of the station, in order to provide fences, 
buildings, live stock, etc., a sum of about $17,000 is considered as 
necessary. This may be provided by Congress, or in case that is not 
considered feasible, by the Hawaiian government, as is done in other 
Territories. After the station is established and the urgent necessities 
provided for, it will require for its maintenance a sum equal to that 
annually provided by Congress for the experiment stations in other 
States and Territories. I recommend, therefore, an appropriation of 
$15,000 for the maintenance of a station in Hawaii for the fiscal jear 
of 1902. 

Very respectfully, yours, 

A. C. True, 

Director. 
Hon. James Wilson, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 



LETTER OF SUBMITTAL 



Audubon Park, New Orleans, La., 

December 15, 1900. 

Sir: Pursuant to a commission from Hon, James Wilson, Secretary 
of Agriculture, to visit Hawaii as a special agent of the Department 
of Agriculture, I have the honor to transmit herewith my report. 
From your letter of instructions, hereto attached, it will be seen that I 
have investigated the subject assigned, and have selected a suitable 
location for the station, and herein make such recommendations as 
have been suggested by m}' investigations. 

In this report I desire to return my sincere thanks for the many 
courtesies received while on the islands. From the governor of the 
islands down to the humblest gardener I was the recipient of highly 
appreciated favors. Indeed every facility was afforded me for the 
prosecution of ni}^ investigations. Especial thanks are, however, due 
to Governor Dole; Commissioner of Agriculture Wray Taylor; Ento- 
mologist A. Koebele; Director of Sugar Experiment Station Dr. 
Walter Maxwell; Island Veterinarian Dr. W. T. Monserrat; Mr. F. A. 
Shafer, vice-president Planters' Association; Mr. S. Tenny, Mr. Eben 
Low, Mr. Paul Isenberg, and others who freely gave me their personal 
time and assistance. To Prof. W. D. Alexander and Mr. J. F. Brown 
I am under man}" obligations for maps, manuscripts, and other favors. 
To the Planters' Association, Dr. Maxwell, Hon. S. A. Cleghorn, and 
Hon. S. O. Damon I am indebted for other courtesies. 

In the preparation of this report I have collected reliable informa- 
tion from every available source. My object has been to compile 
facts and present them as information for the public, and no claim is 
made here for originality. The publications of the Territory, of the 
Sugar Planters' Experiment Station, and of reliable authors have been 
extensivel}" consulted and sometimes freely used. The manuscripts 
furnished me b}" acknowledged authorities are included in this report. 

Respectfully submitted. 

Wm. C. Stubbs, 

Special Agent. 

Dr. A. C. True, 

Director of Office of Experiment Stations^ Wcishingto7i, D. C. 



CONTENTS 



Page. 

Physical and geographical features 15 

Origin of the Hawaiian people ............... 19 

Geology of the islands 22 

Soils of the islands 23 

Climate 25 

Rainfall 26 

Flora of the islands 27 

Native plants 29 

Fiber plants 30 

Fruits 31 

Medicines 32 

Leguminous plants — 32 

Flowers 32 

Grasses 33 

Plants introduced by the natives 33 

Plants i ntroduced since the discovery of the islands 38 

Fruits 39 

Citrus family 40 

Valuable grasses, grains, and forage plants 43 

Sorghums 45 

Leguminous plants 45 

Grasses 45 

Noxious weeds 46 

Trees 47 

Miscellaneous plants and shrubs 50 

Fiber plants 52 

Tannins 53 

Coffee ( Coffea arabica) 54 

Sugar 57 

The distribution of valuable plants 60 

Fruit and vegetable growing 61 

Live stock 65 

Cattle 65 

Dairies 68 

Sheep 69 

Horses and mules 69 

Hogs 69 

Pastures 70 

Irrigation 70 

Forests 73 

Labor 78 

11 



12 CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Land matters 84 

Original divisions of land 85 

Land commission 85 

Homestead laws 87 

The land act of 1895 88 

IMethods of acquiring land under the land act of 1895 88 

General leases 90 

Value of lease system 90 

Transactions since July 7, 1898 91 

The Crown lands 92 

Settlement of the claim of R. Keelikolani, as heir of Kamehameha V. 93 

Supplementary 93 

Experiment station 94 

Irrigation 95 

Eice culture 96 

Stock raising 96 

Poultry 96 

Vegetables 97 

Fruits 97 

Coffee culture 97 

Dairy industry 98 

Location of the station 98 

Equipment and organization 99 

Summary of lines of work , 100 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page. 

Royal palms, Oreodoxa regia Frontispiece. 

Plate I. Landing at Hakalau, Hawaii 18 

II. Fig. 1. — Fishing canoes, Hilo Bay 18 

Fig. 2.— Fish pond, Waikiki road 18 

III. Fig. l.—Wailuka Valley, Maui 22 

Fig. 2. — Honolulu and harbor 22 

IV. Fig. 1. — Grass house, birthplace of Princess Euth 22 

Fig. 2. — Grass house, interior 22 

V. Fig. 1. — Banana plantation 26 

Fig. 2. — Pineapples 26 

VI. Fig. 1. — Gathering cocoanuts 26 

Fig. 2.— Poifeast 26 

VII. Fig. 1.— Tree ferns, Hawaii 30 

Fig. 2. — Travelers' tree, Ravenala madagascarensis 30 

VIII. Fig. 1 — Taro plant, Colocasia antiquorum 30 

Fig. 2. — Papaia trees, Carica papaya 30 

IX. Fig. 1. — Mangoes, Mangifera indica 34 

Fig. 2. — Mammee apple, Mammea americana 34 

X. Fig. 1. — Alligator pear, Persea gratissima 34 

Fig. 2. — Litchi nut, Nephelium litchi 34 

XI. Fig. 1.— Coffee in fruit 38 

Fig. 2. — Rose apple, Eugenia malaccensis 38 

XII. Fig. 1. — Ohelo berry, Vaccinium reticulaturn 38 

Fig. 2. — Sapodilla, Achras sapota 38 

XIII. Fig. 1. — Bread fruit, Artocarpus mcisa 42 

Fig. 2. — Guavas, Psidium guayava 42 

XIV. Fig. 1. — Preparing for rice planting 42 

Fig. 2.— Rice field 42 

XV. Fig. 1. — Algaroba trees, Prosopis juliflora 46 

Fig. 2. — Lotus pond 46 

XVI. Fig. 1. — Royal Poinciana, Polnciana regia 46 

Fig. 2. — Mexican almond or umbrella tree, Terminalia catappa. 46 

XVII. Fig. 1. — Bougainvillea, royal palm on left 50 

Fig. 2. — Banyan tree, Ficus bengalensis 50 

XVIII. Fig. 1. — Sugar cane in bloom 50 

Fig. 2.— Sugar mill, Wailuko 50 

XIX. Fig. 1. — Ewa plantation pumping station 54 

Fig. 2. — Railroad on Ewa sugar plantation 54 

XX. Fig. 1. — Planting cane 54 

Fig. 2. — Coffee plantation 54 

XXL Fig. 1 . — Screw pine or ' ' Hala," Pandanus odoratissimns 58 

Fig. 2. — Hereford cattle. Low's ranch 58 

XXII. Fig. 1.— Hanalei Valley 58 

Fig. 2. — Pmich Bowl, experiment site in foreground 58 

XXIII. Map of the Hawaiian Islands 62 

XXIV. Map of Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and Kahoolawe 66 

XXV. Map of Hawaii 70 

XXVI. Map of Oahu 74 

XXVII. Map of Kauai 78 

13 



REPORT ON THE AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES AND 
CAPABILITIES OF HAWAII. 



PHYSICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES. 

Beyond our western coast, 2,100 miles southwest from San Francisco, 
Cal., lies the new Territory of Hawaii. This Territory consists of a 
series of islands extending from northwest to southeast, resting like a 
cluster of emerald gems in midocean, 2,000 miles or more from their 
nearest neighbor. They are of recent volcanic origin, and are fringed 
with coral reefs. This group consists of twenty islands lying between 
the nineteenth and thirtieth degrees of latitude, and one hundred and 
fifty-fourth to the one hundred and seventy-second degrees of longitude 
east of Greenwich. Of these, eight — Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, Kauai, 
Molokai, Lanai, Kahoolawe, and Niihau — are inhabited, though the 
last two are small in area and in population. 

The smaller ones are only temporarily inhabited by workmen of the 
guano companies, who collect the eggs and the manure deposited upon 
them b}' the mj^riads of sea birds and turtles which permanently abide 
there. Their names are Molokini, Lehua, Kaula, Bird, Necker, 
Johnson, Laysan, Lysiauski, Ocean, Midway, French Frigate Shoal, 
and Pearl Reef. 

In the past these islands were isolated from the centers of civiliza- 
tion, but in recent years, with the development of commerce between 
the Occident and the Orient, the}' have become directly in the line of 
travel and form a halfway house or coaling point for steamers, bound 
from San Francisco or Vancouver to Australia, and from the same 
ports to China and Japan, and from the Isthmus of Panama to the 
same countries. Since the purchase of the Philippine Islands b}^ this 
countiy they have become also the resting as well as the coaling station 
between these islands and the United States. 

The smaller islands are mere rocks and reefs and are known only for 
their guano deposits, their shark fishing grounds, and for their sad 
tales of shipwreck. 

Of the eight larger islands five only are considerably populated, the 
other three, Niihau, Lanai, and Kahoolawe, being used mainly as stock 
ranches. 

Hawaii, the largest island, gives its name to the group and the present 

15 



16 AGEICULTUEAL EESOUECES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

Territory. It is 90 miles long from north to south, and 74 miles broad 
from east to west. Its area is -1,210 square miles. This island is an 
aggregation of three enormous volcanoes which from many points of 
view appear as sublime domes, bold and majestic in outline; their bases 
joining each other suggested the name of the "Triplets," which they 
sometimes receive. 

Mauna Kea, 13,805 feet in height, is the loftiest, and is at present 
inactive. Mauna Loa presents the only living volcano in this group. 
On its summit is the occasionally active crater of Mokuaweoweo whose 
highest rim is 13,675 feet. Hollowed into the side of Mauna Loa, at 
an elevation of 1,000 feet, is the famous crater of Kilauea, always 
manifesting strong indications of eruption and sometimes, as in 1898, 
furiously active. 

To this volcano weekly excursions are made by tourists from Hono- 
lulu. An excellent road (30 miles long) from Hilo to this volcano has 
been constructed, and a comfortable hotel at the crater has been erected 
for the accommodation of visitors. The volcano is one of the attrac- 
tions of the islands, and to those who can stand a rough sea, and a long 
carriage ride, a visit will give great pleasure and much instruction. 

Capt. C. E. Dullon, in his paper on "Hawaiian volcanoes" United 
States Geological Survey, Fourth Annual Report, says: 

Deep-sea soundings in the vicinity have recently disclosed the fact that these 
volcanic piles are only the summits of gigantic mountain masses rising suddenly from 
the bottom of the Pacific which for many hundreds of miles around them is only 
moderately diversified. The slopes of Mauna Loa, east, west, and south, descend 
beneath the surface of the ocean with a gradient fully equal to, if not greater than, 
the visible slope of its flanks. The submarine slopes of all the other islands in direc- 
tions perpendicular to the imncipal axis of the group are equally great and possibly 
somewhat greater. The depths attained by these continuous slopes within 30 to 50 
miles of the shores vary from 2,400 to 3,100 fathoms, or 14,000 to 19,000 feet. Mauna 
Loa and Mauna Kea, referred to their true bases at the bottom of the Pacific, are 
therefore mountains not far from 30,000 feet in height. And in general the island 
group consists of a gigantic submarine mountain chain projecting its loftier peaks and 
domes above the water. 

Hualalai, the third of the "Triplets," has a height of 8,275 feet. It 
has been inactive since 1801. Although this island is well within the 
tropics, hail and snow are of frequent occurrence upon these volcanoes 
at altitudes above 9,000 feet. Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa are capped 
with snow the greater portion of the year. In the extreme north of 
the island are the Kohala Mountains, whose highest peak reaches 5,505 
feet. The coast line is regular, sometimes precipitous, but with few 
bays and no regular harbors. At Hilo, on the east, the bay might be 
made a respectable harbor. (See PI. II, fig. 1.) Considerable shipping 
is done from this port, where recently a small wharf has been con- 
structed and where a fairly safe anchorage for ships can be secured. 

On the west of the island are the small, insecure bays of Kailua and 



PHYSICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES. 17 

Kealakuka, and on the northwest is Kawaihae Bay. Artificial land- 
ings (PI. I) have been established at nearl}^ every plantation for the 
purpose of traffic. The island is divided into the following districts: 
Kohala, Hamakua, Hilo, Puna, Kau, and Kona. 

Hawaii leads the other islands in size, in picturesqueness, and in 
diversitj^ of soil and products. It grows the largest quantity of sugar, 
coffee, and live stock. The variations in climatic conditions due to 
altitude and location (whether windward or leeward), together with 
available arable soil at all altitudes, justify the belief and warrant the 
assertion that almost every tropical and temperate plant can some- 
where be grown successfully on this island. When shipping facilities 
are increased and the island more densely populated, one may expect 
with confidence a varied agricultural development which will render 
famous this attractive isle. 

Maui is the second island in size, with a length of 46 and a Ijreadth 
of 30 miles. It contains 760 square miles. Here we have two moun- 
tain formations of unequal size. The smaller consists of a series of 
serrated ridges, rising in extreme height to 5,800 feet, with deep, 
narrow, fertile valleys between. On the northeast and southwest are 
sufficient level arable lands to permit of extensive sugar culture and 
stock raising, while steep precipices overlook the ocean in the north, 
lao Valley, justly ranked as one of the most beautiful and fertile in 
the Territory, is found in the eastern portion of this part of the island. 
Haleakala, one of the largest extinct volcanoes in the world, rising to 
the height of 10,030 feet, may be regarded as the center of the larger 
portion of this island. Along its slopes tropical and temperate agri- 
culture may both be practiced, and at its base are found some of the 
finest sugar plantations of the world. Maalaua Bay, on the south, and 
Kahului Bay, on the north of the neck of land joining the two parts 
of the islands, are shipping points. The districts of this island are: 
Lahaina, Wailuka (PL III, fig. 1), Makawao, and Haua. 

Oahu is the third island in size, but the first in population, due to 
the city of Honolulu, which is the capital of the Territory and the 
chief seaport of the islands. It is 46 miles long b}^ 25 miles broad, 
being, however, irregular in shape. The Koolau range extends from 
the extreme eastern point of the island to the northwestern coast, with 
transverse ridges running in the southern portion almost from ocean 
to ocean. On the opposite side of the island is the Waianae Ridge, 
with spurs running almost to the ocean. On this ridge occurs the 
highest peak, 4,030 feet. For its size this island has the largest 
producing power. Its sugar plantations are justl}" esteemed as the 
best in the world. 

Honolulu is the onl}^ improved harbor of the coast (PI. Ill, fig. 2), 
with a depth to the wharves of 30 feet. Pearl Harbor, 12 miles west 
of Honolulu, a port ceded to the United States during the reign of 
H. Doc. 368 2 



18 AGEICULTUKAL RESOUECES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

King Kalakaua upon the execution of the treaty of reciprocity with 
these islands, is capable of being made one of the largest and safest 
harbors in the world. The districts of Oahu are Honolulu, Koolau- 
poko, Waialua, Ewa, and Waianae. 

Kauai has a length of 25 miles, with a breadth of 22 miles and an 
area of 590 miles. Geologicall}^ it is the oldest island of this group, as 
will be shown later under the geology of the islands. Accordingly we 
find it l)etter supplied with streams and cascades, the former originally 
furnishing the power to mills for grinding wheat, corn, and sugar 
cane. Its soils, too, have been more thoroughly disintegrated, and 
therefore possess more f ertilit}' than soils elsewhere in the archipelago. 
Hence the name so proudly applied to it by its inhabitants, the 
" Garden Isle." The island is noted for its excellent sugar planta- 
tions, on the ocean side of which extensive rice fields abound. 

The northwestern portion of the island has a line of lofty cliffs 7 
miles long. Waialeale is a large mountain mass, nearly in the center 
of the island. Its northern portion extends nearly to the ocean in 
loft}^ ranges, while its southern end slopes gradually to the sea. There 
are several small bays on the island, but no secure harbors. The dis- 
tricts of this island are Lihue and Koloa, Kawaihau, Hanalei (PI. XXH, 
fig. 1), and Waimea. This island is so near the temperate zone that 
it partakes of some of its climatic characteristics. A few trees shed 
their leaves in winter, new ones appearing in spring. The orange and 
pear trees bloom in February, and the fig trees bear two crops each year, 
one in the spring and the other in the fall. Elsewhere in the islands 
these fruit trees have no definite period for blooming, but continue to 
bloom and fruit throughout the year, often at the same time. The 
temperature varies greatly, often falling in winter to 50° F. 

Molokai is 40 miles long and has an area of about 310 square miles. 
The western half of the island is an elevated plain 1,000 feet above the 
sea, without running streams, but covered with grass and shrubs, fur- 
nishing feed for herds of cattle, etc., which roam over it. The eastern 
end has several valleys with bold, precipitous sides, with streams which 
frequentl}'' go dry. The northern coast is mainlj^ precipitous, pre- 
senting but few landings, but near the center is a tongue of land pro- 
jecting into the ocean, 10 miles in length and 1 in breadth, which was 
selected b}^ the Hawaiian government over thirty years ago as a home 
for the lepers. It is a grassy plain, inclosed on three sides by the 
ocean and on the south by an impassable escarpment over 1,000 feet 
high. It is well sheltered from the strong sea winds by the highlands 
in the rear. It is an appropriate location for an asylum. There 
are about (),000 acres in the tract, with a fertile soil, affording 
abundant pasturage for cattle and horses required by the unfortunate 
inmates. The government generously provides for this home, fur- 
nishing comfortable cottages, liberal rations, necessary clothing, and 



House Doc. No. 368. 



Plate \. 




Landing at Hakalau, Hawaii. 



House Doc. No. 368. 



Plate II. 





^^-^i 



Fig. 1.— Fishing Canoes, Hilo Bay. 




Fig. 2.— Fish Pond, Waikiki Road. 



OKU.IN OF THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 19 

the home comforts of flowers, fruits, and vegetables. A gymnasium, a 
reading room, and two churches (a Congregational and a Catholic), with 
clerg3'meu, are provided specially for the patients. Even a band of 
sixteen leper musicians frequentlv plays for the public. Local physi- 
cians, appointed by the government, administer to the ills of the occu- 
pants. By law every leper on the islands is sent to this home, and 
none is permitted his freedom. The government has spent to date 
over 12,000,000 on this home, and with the present watchful care exer- 
cised over leprosy it will be only a short time before this dread dis- 
ease, introduced into the island in 1853, will be completely eradicated. 

Lanai, the sixth island of the group in size, is 21 miles long and 8 
in breadth, and has an area of about 160 square miles. The highest 
point on this island is about 2,400 feet. The mountain range has a 
continuous wall which incloses an interior space (an old crater) of 
about 20,000 acres. This land-locked valley of Palawai, 1,500 feet 
high, is covered with grass and resembles a huge meadow. Below this 
valley are circles of gradually declining elevations until they reach the 
sea. The island is used exclusively for grazing, and affords suste- 
nance to thousands of sheep, goats, and horses. 

Niihau, next to the smallest of the eight large islands, lies southwest 
of Kauai, and has an area of about 70,000 acres. It is nothing more 
than a large sheep ranch (owned by Messrs. Gay and Robinson), and 
its inhabitants are mainly shepherds. A fine grass {Ci/j)eriis Imviga- 
ti/s) resembling the Guayaquil grass, used in making Panama hats, is 
here found indigenous and was formerly extensively used in making 
Niihau mats, noted for their delicac}'" and beauty. Shells of great 
beauty are found on the coast, and some of them are strung into neck- 
laces and sold to the tourists. 

Kahoolawe, the smallest of the larger islands, lies opposite to East 
Maui. It is used as a sheep pasture and has about 25,000 acres, cov- 
ered with grass and shrubbery. Only a few shepherds live on the 
island. 

ORIGIN OF THE HAWAIIAN PEOPLE. 

The origin of the inhabitants of these islands has never been defi- 
nitely solved. The botanical affinities of the plants and the ethno- 
logical resemblances of the animals, including the people, all point to 
the islands of the south and southwest. Professor Alexander, in his 
History of the Hawaiian People, states that "the inhabitants of all 
the groups of islands in the eastern Pacific from New Zealand to 
Hawaii, and also to Easter Island, scattered over a distance of 1,000 
miles, ma}' be considered as one race, which is commonly called the 
Pol3'nesian race; for they all speak dialects of the same language, 
have the same ph3'sical features, the same manners and customs, the 
same general sj' stem of 'tabus,' and similar traditions and religious 



20 AGEICULTUKAL KESOUECES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

rites. " The}^ have in common the names of the principal gods, stories 
of the origin of fire, about the deluge, etc. The Pol^^nesian language 
is a member of a large and widely spread family, including those 
spoken in Micronesia, the Philippine Islands, the Malay Archipelago, 
and Madagascar. It is thought that the Polj-nesians originally came 
from southwestern Asia, but it is positively known that their progen- 
itors were emigrants from the Indian Archipelago. 

It is fairly well determined that the island of Savaii, in the Samoan 
group, is the point of departure for all of the Polynesians of the 
eastern Pacific. The Maoris, of New Zealand, closely resembling the 
Hawaiians, have a tradition that their ancestors came from Hawaiki. 
The Marquesians claim that their ancestors came from Hawaii in the 
West, stopping at Fiji, Vavau, and Tonga. The dialects of all of 
these islands are similar to the Hawaiian. 

The first settlement of the Hawaiian Islands was made long ago, 
since human bones are found under coral reefs and ancient lava flows. 
Judge Fornander thinks the islands were inhabited as early as 500 
A. D. Whether the earlier settlers were driven from other islands in 
war or left them designedly, whether they were seeking new islands 
or were driven out of their course by storms to known ones will never 
be known. The original Hawaiians were great navigators, perform- 
ing voyages of many months' duration in large canoes, sailing with 
outriggers to the windward, well provisioned, etc. They sailed by the 
stars at night and by the sun in the day. Thus the settlement of all of 
the islands of the Pacific may be accounted for. 

After separation from the world for many generations intercourse 
with the South Pacific islands was established, and many of these 
famous voyages have been celebrated both in song and story. Most 
of these voyages were made to Kahiki (Tahiti), but the intercourse 
ceasing over five hundred years ago, the Hawaiians lost definite ideas 
of the locality of these islands, and so in time Kahiki came to mean 
any foreign country. 

The Hawaiians were divided formerly into three classes, with wide 
and permanent distinction between them: (l)The nobility, consisting 
of the kings and chiefs; (2) the priests, sorcerers, and doctors; and 
(3) the common or laboring class. The first class were the sole owners 
of the land and all that grew upon it. They were also owners of the 
fish of the sea, and of the time and labor of the people. The latter 
owned nothing absolutely. The feudal system was practiced here in 
an intensified form, the common laborers not receiving more than 
one-third of the products of their toil. The second class were the 
learned men and kept alive the knowledge of astronomy, history, 
medicine, etc. Wars were common and very destructive. The van- 
quished were either destroyed or branded on the forehead as slaves 
and made to serve the remainder of their life. Marriage was practiced 



ORIGIN OF THE HAWAEIAN PEOPLE. 21 

by all, but the tie was not strong, the husband dismissing his wife at 
pleasure. Polygamy was practiced by all who could afford it. Descent 
came through the mother only, hence, ever}' king and chief sought a 
wife of noble birth. This custom lent dignity and respect to woman- 
hood. Infanticide was universally practiced, the girls being more 
frequently destroyed than the boys. 

Cannibalism, formerly so freely and frequently charged against the 
people, was unknown and was looked upon by all with horror and 
detestation. They lived upon taro, sweet potatoes, yams, bananas, and 
fish. Cereal grains, as well as cotton, flax, and wool, were unknown 
to them. Cloth (kapa) was made from the bark of the mulberry tree, 
beaten out with heav}^ wooden mallets elaborately carved. This kapa 
was of different quality and thickness, and frequenth^ dj^ed and 
varnished. Its uses were manifold. No such thing as a loom was 
known. There was an entire absence of metals; no beasts of burden; 
in fact, no domestic animal save the dog and the pig. The Hawaiians 
therefore remained unduly long in the "stone age." The absence of 
domestic animals and the lack of extensive tracts of fertile land pre- 
vented them from being a pastoral people. They were obliged, there- 
fore, to confine their efforts to such work as could be performed by 
their hands and to such burdens as could be carried on the backs of 
men and women. Considering their environment, the earlj' Hawaiians 
made remarkable industrial progress, evidences of which are every- 
where to be seen on the islands. 

Terraces, artificial fish ponds (see PI. II, fig. 2), ditches for irriga- 
tion, large trenches for their sports, immense temples, and numerous 
grass houses are everywhere to be seen, memorials of the ingenuity, 
thought, and industrial activit}^ of these ancient people. In "the 
magnificent Pol3"nesian museum in Honolulu, dedicated in memory of 
his wife (a descendant of the line of Kamehameha I) by Mr. Bishop, 
are found stone and lava hatchets, knives, and fishhooks of sharks' 
teeth. Kapa cloth of endless qualities and colors, mats, fans, fish nets, 
ropes, baskets, numerous domestic implements made of hard wood 
or stone, calabashes of large size and beautiful finish made from the 
hard wood of the island, pans for the evaporating of salt from sea water, 
spears, javelins, daggers, slings made from the fiber of the cocoanut 
husk or of human hair, long and deep canoes of wonderful carrying 
capacity and extremely seaworthy when lashed together, and with masts 
carrying sails made of bark, all testified to the skill, enterprise, and 
industry of these wonderful people, isolated for over five hundred 
years from the world. 



22 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

GEOLOGY OF THE ISLANDS. 

These islands arc of volcanic origin. The rocks are mainly basaltic 
lavas, with here and there a few remnants of elevated sea beaches, 
composed of consolidated coral sands. The islands extend from north- 
west to southeast, showing that through a fissure in the earth's crust 
volcanoes have been built up. Botanical and geological evidences go 
to show that the age of the different islands increases as one proceeds 
from east to west. Kauai, the most northwestern, is always men- 
tioned as the oldest island, and Hawaii, the extreme southeastern, as 
the 3^oungest. The eroding forces of nature have produced greater 
destruction upon the former island than upon any other, while the only 
active volcanoes in the group are found on Hawaii. Judging, there- 
fore, from the greater disintegration of its soils, the much heavier 
denudation of its slopes, the presence of numerous running streams, 
of precipitous falls and cascades, the greater abundance of vegetation, 
both in quantity and variety, all apparently support the statement that 
Kauai is the oldest of the islands. Rightly considered, it proves only 
that volcanic activit}^ ceased here earlier than elsewhere, but it does not 
show that it began here earlier than in Hawaii. Which island first 
lifted its head above the ocean there is absolutely no way to determine. 

Northwesterly of the Hawaiian group there is a succession of reefs 
and low, uninhabited islets extending for a distance of 30° longi- 
tude, nearly half way to Japan, revealing a narrow band of elevated 
sea bottom with an average depth of not over 1,000 fathoms, as is 
shown by the chart of this portion of the Pacific. These are all in 
the continuation of the main axis of the Hawaiian group, along the 
same fissure of the earth's crust, and are doubtless the coral-crowned 
peaks of submerged volcanoes, antedating in activity those which 
have produced the present islands. Doubtless volcanic activity began 
at the northwest and gradually moved southeasterl}^, terminating in 
Hawaii, with subsidence of the older formations during the progress. 
The extensive western end of this raised sea bottom is still removed 
by a great distance and enormous depth of soundings from the nearest 
land, Japan. That this great gulf between Japan and Hawaii has 
always existed is shown by the absence of anj^ affinity between the 
flora of the two groups of islands. 

Between San Francisco and Hawaii the soundings have given nearly 
uniform depths of 3,000 fathoms, while farther south (2° or more) 
is found one of the largest depressions in the ocean, which extends 
nearly to the low-lying islands of Jarvis, Christmas, Palmyra, and 
others which trend in the direction of the Society group. There is 
therefore no evidence to show a terrestrial immigration of plants to 
these islands in former times. 

Ocean currents, however slight may be the positive evidence, must 



House Doc. No. 368. 



Plate 111. 




Fig 1 .— Wailuka Valley, Maui. 




Fig. 2.- Honolulu and Harbor. 



House Doc. No. 368. 



Plate IV. 




Fig. 1 .—Grass House, Birthplace of Princess Ruth. 




Fig. 2.— Grass House, Interior. 



SOILS OF THE ISLANDS. 23 

be assumed as the vehicle of transportation of the flora found origi- 
nally on the islands. The northeasterly current of the Pacific, which 
strikes the continent of America and is deflected southward after con- 
tact, deposits driftwood of pine logs upon the islands. This deflected 
current is reenforced by a feeder on its southern boundary from Mexico 
Eind Central and South America, and bears with it the drift of these 
countries. 

A review of the island flora shows only one or two inhabitants of 
California, and thej^ from the highest mountains, while the Andean 
flora is quite abundant. The equatorial counter current may, during 
the long continuance of southwesterly gales, which frequently prevail 
in winter, have deposited drift on the islands. 

This isolation of the Hawaiian Islands has given them a peculiar 
flora, containing a large proportion of plants found nowhere else. The 
peculiar characteristics of the islands contribute largely to such results 
and aid in multiplying varieties. The traveler may, in a single day, 
pass from the tropical heat of the coast to the region of perpetual 
snow, and if he crosses from the windward over to the leeward side of 
an island he will encounter a climate with a varying rainfall from 300 
inches annually to less than 30. There is a wonderful diversity in 
temperature, rainfall, elevation, and barometric pressure. The soil, 
however, is quite uniform, derived from the basaltic lava, with a nar- 
row band of coral limestone encircling the islands on the coast. These 
soils are extremely porous, and the rainfall passes quickly into them, 
sinking into the artesian reservoirs made possible by the encircling 
belt of coral, which furnish the potable and irrigating waters of the 
islands. Geologically speaking, the islands are therefore very young, 
with a very limited fauna and flora. 

SOILS OF THE ISLANDS. 

The recent geological origin of the islands has already been men- 
tioned. One would naturally expect, therefore, to find the soils 
primitive in character and more nearly of the composition of the vol- 
canic rocks from which they came than soils of similar origin in 
older countries. Such has been found to be the case, as has been por- 
trayed in Lavas and Soils, by Dr. Walter Maxwell, former director of 
the Hawaiian experiment station, now of Queensland. 

He has shown that the soils of the islands ma}' be geologically clas- 
sified as dark red soils, which have been formed from normal lavas by 
simple weathering in a climate of great heat and dryness, and yellow 
and light red soils, which are derived from lavas that suffer great 
alteration at the time of, or soon after, emission, under the action of 
the steam and sulphurous vapors resident within the lavas at the time 
of eruption. Through the action of these imprisoned agents these 
lavas have undergone such a radical alteration, both in chemicaLcom- 



24 AGRICULTUEAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

position and color, as to mislead a scientist as to their origin were it 
not for the presence of the living volcanoes on the island of Hawaii, 
which permits of special study along these lines. Dr. Maxwell has 
shown that lateral or "tufa cones" exist all over the islands, and the 
lavas therefrom have given soils widely distributed over all the islands. 
These soils are inferior in fertilitj" to the dark red soils. Some of 
them yield well when first brought under cultivation, but depreciate 
rapidly in productivitj^ in a few years, requiring careful and special 
treatment for maintenance or restoration of fertility. There are other 
large areas of these soils which are not productive, due to the presence 
of ferrous sulphate, an active poison to plant life. These can, by 
proper physical and chemical amendments, be made productive. 

Besides the above, which are found in situ, there are considerable 
areas of sedimentary soils, formed by denudation and deposition 
mainly on the leeward sides of the islands and in sections of small rain- 
fall. The coral reefs which begirt the islands have served as shelves 
to catch the deposition produced b}^ falling rains in the mountain 
regions. These sedimentar}^ deposits have covered the coral reefs 
from 1 to 30 feet deep, and form to-day the most fertile soils of the 
islands, and are used mainly by the sugar planters, though the deltas 
of the small valleys next to the ocean are cultivated in rice by the 
Chinese. 

Large areas, marked by a predominance of these soils, show that 
the}^ have been derived from normal lavas which have undergone slow 
decomposition in a hot climate with a small rainfall. They are strong, 
deep soils, colored intensel}" with iron and darkened by an incorpora- 
tion of vegetable matter. They closely resemble pulverized bricks, 
darkened by an admixture with vegetable mold or humus. They are 
uniformly fertile soils and are ever3nvhere highly esteemed as excel- 
lent sugar lands. 

The soils of the islands are marked chemically by a low content of 
silica, the larger percentage of which is soluble, and by the presence of 
a large proportion of basic elements, against an enormous preponder- 
ance of acidic constituents in American soils. The Hawaiian soils are 
geologically recent, and have not yet undergone that change of struc- 
tural composition and type which characterizes the old and perhaps 
permanent soils of America. 

Dr. Maxwell further divides the soils of the islands into upland and 
lowland soils. Under the former he includes those which have been 
formed under lower temperature and greater rainfall, and distinguished 
by a large content of organic matter and nitrogen and by a low con- 
tent of the elements of plant food in an available state, these elements 
having been removed by rainfall. Under lowland are "soils formed 
under higher temperature and smaller rainfall, and distinguished by a 
low content of organic matter and nitrogen and by a higher content 



CLIMATE. 25 

of the elements of plant food in a state of immediate availability which 
is due in part to the receipt of soluble constituents from the upper 
lands and to a smaller rainfall over the lower levels." 

The dark red soils and the sedimentary soils are credited with an 
average production of about 5 tons of sugar per acre, while the yellow 
and light red soils give only a little over 3 tons, but the latter, which 
grows the least cane, produces the best quality of juice. 

The coffee soils, found at elevations of 1,000 to 3,000 feet, are 
extremel}^ rich in nitrogen. 

The greater portion of the islands are not susceptible of cultivation, 
being covered with rugged lava and deeply gulched, or with poor soils 
incapable of large production. The dry plains and seacoasts are made 
fertile })y irrigation. The fertile valleys are highl}" productive, but of 
ver}" limited areas. 

Only a small portion of the islands is capable of sustaining a dense 
population. The most fertile belts are near the ocean. The interior 
is mountainous and craggj^, with a very thin soil, adapted in many 
instances to pasturage, but unfit for cultivated crops. Many parts of 
the shore belt are barren without irrigation, but extremelj^ productive 
with an abundance of water. Other parts are covered with lavas not 
jet converted into soil, and still others are gulched and carved into 
ravines so deep and precipitous that access is almost impossible. 
Deep, rich soils at low altitudes form, probably, not over one-fortieth 
of the islands. Thinner soils, perhaps capable of producing profitable 
crops of some kind, are far more abundant. 

CLIMATE. 

The climate of the islands is more semitropical than tropical, and to 
a visitor is quite enjoyable, though permanent dwellers complain of 
the lassitude which the monotonous climate produces after a sojourn 
of a few j^ears on the islands. 

Hawaii is fanned by northeast trade winds and laved by cool oceanic 
currents coming from the north, thus reducing by many degrees the 
temperature which its geographical position would predicate. The 
constanc}' of these winds and currents gives an equable temperature 
averaging about 75° F. throughout the year, with extremes of 60° to 
85^. Altitude is here the most potent factor of temperature, the 
thermometer falling about 4° for ever}^ 1,000 feet of ascent, so that 
on the simimits of Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa snow and ice may 
frequently be found. 

The windward and leeward sides of the islands vary also in tempera- 
ture and rainfall. The eastern or windward sides of the islands are 
constantly swept by strong winds, which produce heavy rainfalls and 
lower temperatures, while the western or leeward sides are compara- 
tively calm, drv, and warm. On the former farming of all kinds can 



26 



AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 



be carried on without irrigation, wliile on the latter, especially near 
the coast, irrigation is essential for the production of maximum crops. 
Even upon the. leeward side the rainfall varies with the altitude, 
beginning on the coast with about 20 inches annually, and increasing 
as one ascends the mountains. Frequentl}^ on a plantation of varying 
altitudes the rainfall will be abundant for crop purposes on a part of 
it, while on another part irrigation will be absolutely necessary to 
grow most any kind of plant successfully. 

The heavy rains falling upon the windward side of the islands have 
clothed the mountain slopes with a dense forest, and cut into them 
numerous deep and precipitous ravines. On the leeward side a less 
vigorous growth of plants is found, and in many places, near the sea, 
none at all. The islands are said to be exempt from the terrible 
cyclones which so frequently devastate the central Pacific. 

RAINFALL. 

As previously remarked, the rainfall on the islands varies within 
wide limits. On the leeward side of Hawaii, on the opposite side to 
Hilo (Kona side), there is a coast line of over 50 miles in length, run- 
ning back to an elevation of 1,000 feet, on which there is an annual 
precipitation of about 4 inches only. There are elevations on the 
windward side where the rainfall will probably reach 300 inches a year. 
Perhaps sections may be found where the precipitation will represent 
everj^ degree between these extremes. 

Again, it is difficult to realize without a visit to the islands how close 
together are the sections in which these extremes occur, frequently 
within a few miles of one another. The following is a record of the 
rainfall at Honolulu for the past sixteen years, taken, however, at an 
elevation of 50 feet. Here, too, one must realize that the city of 
Honolulu runs from the sea back to an elevation of over 300 feet, and 
the rainfall in the city varies with the elevation. At the sea level the 
average is below that given in the following table: 

Record of the rainfall at Honolulu for the past sixteen years. 
[From daily readings at the residence of Mr. W. R. Castle. (Elevation, 50 feet).] 



Month. 



January 

February . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September , 

October 

November , 
December.. 



1884. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1SS9. 1890. 1891 



In. 

1.07 

1.68 

4.06 

3.52 

.44 

.48 

1.40 

.83 

.32 

4.66 

.54 

3.76 



Total : 22.76 



In. 
0.06 

.67 
2.96 
5.11 
11.56 
2.51 
4.27 
2. 85 
1.17 

.03 
1.40 
3.14 

35. 73 



In. 

0.38 

.94 

1.63 

1.19 

1.61 

.63 

.56 

.43 

2.26 

1.84 

8.74 

3.47 

23.68 



In. 

5.85 

13.04 

2.24 

2.35 

4.10 

.95 

.67 

1.02 

.95 

.44 

1.84 

6.37 

49.82 



In. 
0.78 
1.98 
2.25 
2.36 
1.97 
.47 
.15 
4.22 
2.80 
1.31 
3.39 
IS. 08 

39.76 



In. 

0.87 

.77 

.38 

.94 

.81 

.97 

.48 

1.16 

1.81 

.95 

1.50 

2.82 

13.46 



In. 

2.00 

9.85 

7.83 

4.84 

1.20 

.86 
1.30 
1.00 

.60 
1.36 
1.80 
1.64 

34.28 



In. 

1.19 

4.84 
.69 
.88 
.23 
.43 
.58 
.58 
.47 

3.62 
.39 

1.50 

15.40 



House Doc No. 368. 



Plate V. 




Fig. 1.— Banana Plantation. 




Fig. 2.— Pineapples. 



House Doc. No. 368. 



Plate VI 




Fig. 1.— Gathering Cocoanuts. 




Fig. 2.— Poi Feast. 



FLORA OF THE ISLANDS. 27 

Record of the rainfall at Honolulu for the past sixteen years — Continued. 



Month. 


1892. 


1893. 


1894. 


1895. 


1896. 


1897. 


1898. 


1899. 




In. 
6.50 

3.18 
.29 

1.60 

.5. 10 
.67 
.53 

1.14 
.42 

3.01 
.35 

3.97 


In. 

2.57 

13.45 

.75 

2.22 

1.50 
.29 
.28 

1.04 
.91 
.64 

8.33 

1.30 


In. 

3.08 

12. 42 

1.51 

2.26 

.10 

.59 

.45 

.08 

..56 

1.76 

8.33 

2.41 


In. 

2.38 

1.81 

1.46 

1.01 

.93 

.90 

.45 

1.41 

2.15 

.41 

4.27 

12. 02 


In. 

2.20 

1.30 

3.11 

2.40 

1.51 

.78 

.00 

1.33 

.39 

2.04 

2.31 

5.54 


In. 

0.94 

.79 

1.20 

.93 

.96 

.99 

.81 

.39 

2.66 

1.61 

1.88 

.61 


In. 

3.97 

7.60 

9.66 

1.26 

.68 

2.07 

.63 

.58 

.15 

.52 

.50 

.77 


In. 
0.87 




3. 55 




3.73 


April 


.81 


May 


1.44 




.68 


Julv 


.11 




1.04 




.35 




3.70 




.17 




1.95 






Total 


26. 67 


33.28 


33.54 


29.20 


22.91 


13.67 


28.39 


18.42 







Averages for sixteen years, 28.18 inches; maximum, 49.82 Inches; minimum, 13.46 inches. 

FLORA OF THE ISLANDS. 

In considering- the present flora of the islands, including of course 
its cultivated plants, it would be well to separate them into three dis- 
tinct groups. (1) Indigenous plants, those that were found by the 
Hawaiians when they first settled the islands, reckoned by Judge 
Fornander to have been about A. D. 500; (2) those introduced by the 
Hawaiians and brought from other islands in the Pacific, and (3) those 
introduced since the discovery of the islands by Captain Cook, in 17Y9. 

By carefully dift'erentiating these groups, a knowledge, not only of 
the botany of the islands, but also of the various crops and plants 
which can be successfully grown from past experience, will be 
obtained. Allusion has already been made to the paucity of native 
flora, both in genera and species, found on the islands. It has also 
been shown that the afiinities of the native flora were Polynesian, 
Andean, and Calif ornian. The complete isolation of the islands has 
given a peculiar flora, containing a larger proportion of endemic plants 
than any other known country. Hillebrand, in his "'Flora of the 
Hawaiian Islands," describes 844 species of phanerogamic plants dis- 
tributed over 335 genera, and 155 vascular cryptogamic plants distrib- 
uted over 30 genera, making a total of 999 species and 305 genera. Of 
these it is believed that 115 species have been introduced since the 
discovery of the islands by Captain Cook. These are included in 101 
genera, 22 of which contain indigenous species. They cover cultivated 
plants and trees, escapes from cultivation and accidental introductions, 
but well established. This number has already increased since the 
publication of Hillebrand's Botany, and will continue to increase with 
each recurring year. 

Besides the above, the native Hawaiians are believed to have intro- 
duced in prehistoric times at least 24 species. Deducting both those 
introduced by natives and by the white man since 1779, and there will 
remain 860 species as original inhabitants of the Hawaiian Islands, 



28 AGRIOULTUEAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

distributed over 265 genera. Of these 653 are endemic and peculiar 
to the islands; 250 of these species belong to 40 endemic or peculiar 
genera. Of the dicotj^ledonous plants over 85 per cent are endemic. 
The number of endemic plants on an}' individual island of the group 
depends upon the age of the island. In fact, the comparative age of 
an island, or any part thereof, can almost be determined by the number 
of endemic plants found. 

The islands not only vary among themselves as to the character of 
flora found, but each individual island varies in its flora in proportion 
to altitude. Therefore the flora of the islands maj^ be divided into 
groups occupying difi'erent zones of elevation. Hillebrand divides 
them into five groups, viz: (1) The lowland zone, the open country 
covered with grass only after rains, with isolated trees, represented 
by few genera. The littoral species are included. (2) The lower 
forest zone, extending to a height of 2,000 feet above the sea. The 
' ' kukui " oil tree grows exclusively in this belt. (3) The middle forest 
zone, which lies within the region of the clouds and develops the 
greatest luxuriance in trees and jungle. Here the tree ferns luxuriate, 
attaining enormous dimensions. This zone extends to 6,000 feet. 
(4) The upper forest zone, reaching up as high as 9,000 feet, is char- 
acterized by stunted trees. Here strawberries and the Ohela berry 
(Vaccinium) flourish. (5) Special groups of bog flora, found on the 
high table-lands of Kauai and West Maui. Here mosses, sedges, and 
tussock-like grasses prevail. These zones are not fixed, but vary con- 
siderably with their exposure, rising higher under the lee than on the 
windward side of the islands. 

The size and characteristics of the plants vary in accordance with 
their environment. Heat and dryness of the air, a scanty soil, espe- 
ciall}" undecomposed lava, check life and dwarf the plants and sometimes 
impose new properties. A period of short growth follows an occasional 
rainfall, and then a long repose with great effort to sustain life. These 
varying conditions, acting through a series of years, have the power of 
modifying preexisting qualities and impressing new ones, thus produc- 
ing variations from the normal type. Varieties change ultimately to 
species, and species, perhaps, to genera. Hence the large number of 
endemic plants on these islands. The family of gymnosperms (pine, 
cypress, cedar, etc.) is not represented on the islands, and this is 
accounted for on the ground that these islands were formed subse- 
quent to the geological age in which thej^ were universally distributed. 
A striking peculiarity of Hawaiian trees is their low height. Onl}' the 
cocoanut palm exceeds 100 feet. Other trees rarely exceed 60 feet. 
Another peculiarity of the Hawaiian flora is that nearl}' all native 
plants are perennial and woody. 

It will be impossible, in a short treatise like this, to give in detail 
the various useful plants now found in the islands; nor could the writer 



FLOKA OF THE ISLANDS. 29 

do SO, even if space permitted, without a more thorough study of the 
entire subject. It will not be inappropriate, however, to mention 
8ome of the most important, including native plants, those introduced 
by the Hawaiians, and those introduced b}^ the white man since the 
discovery of the islands. 

NATIVE PLANTS. 

Of these, bj' far the most important are the woods of the islands. 
They served to make their enormous canoes, in which the natives 
crossed from island to island, and occasionally made voj^ages to other 
islands in the South Pacific. Others were used for outriggers and 
masts. Idols were carved from the softer as well as the hard woods. 
The hardest varieties furnished the mallets for beating kapa cloth. 
These mallets were elaborately carved and of a different pattern on 
each face. They were used in such a manner as to stamp the pattern 
upon the cloth. From the forests came the bark, leaves, and fiber 
out of which kapa cloth, mats, fishing lines, nets, etc., were made. 

From the various trees came the dj'^es which they used in coloring 
the kapa cloth, and in tattooing their skins. The materia medica of 
the Kahunas (native doctors) was gathered exclusively from the forests 
and fields. 

PI. VII, fig. 1, shows characteristics of native vegetation. 

Chief among the woods was Acacia Jcoa^ called by the natives Koa. 
It was a common forest tree, occurring at an elevation of 1,500 to 
4,000 feet above the sea. It was once the most valuable tree of the 
islands, useful for fuel and for building purposes. In cabinet work 
it excels, as illustrated in several buildings in Honolulu. It is sus- 
ceptible of a high polish, and when so treated and varnished its beau- 
tiful wavy lines are delicately revealed. The great war canoes of the 
natives were cut from the trunks of this tree. It is also used for 
veneers, and its bark for tanning. It is exceedingh' scarce upon the 
islands at the present time, the great forests formerly existing having 
been consumed. While the body of the canoe was made from Koa, 
the rims were furnished bj^ a soft, light wood, Ahakea {Bohea elatlor)^ 
(which was also used for fuel and buildings), and the outrigger from 
Wiliwili {Erythrina monosperma)^ a very light wood (said to be lighter 
than cork). The last-named wood was also used for floats for fish nets. 

The Ae {Zanthoxylum I'aualense)^ a graceful small tree, was used for 
Oo (diggers) handles and spears. 

Ihe Koaia {Acacia koaia) is a most excellent hard wood for furniture 
and was used both for spears and fancy paddles. It is a harder wood 
than the Koa. 

The Kauila {AJphitonia ponderosa), which occurs on the dry slopes 
of the leeward side of the island and which attains to a greater height 
than any other tree, is remarkable for its close grain, hardness, and 



30 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

heavy weight. Out of it the natives make spears, mallets for beating 
kapa, and other tools. It blackens with age. 

The islands once abounded in sandalwood {Santalum freycinetianwn)^ 
but the great demand for this wood in Canton, China, for incense and 
for the manufacture of fancy articles caused a trade which quickly 
destroyed the forests of this tree. Between 1810 and 1825 this trade 
in sandalwood was at its height, and while it lasted brought great 
wealth to the king and chiefs in guns, ammunition, liquors, boats, and 
small ships, which they received in exchange. It brought from 6 to 
10 cents per pound. It was the first export that attracted commerce 
to the island. So great was the destruction of these trees that it was 
found necessary to lay a " tabu" on the few remaining ones. A great 
many sandal trees have since sprung up in the islands, but nowhere in 
such quantities as to justify a revival of the trade. After the sandal- 
wood was exhausted there was exported to China the bastard san- 
dal wood {3fyoporuni sandwicense)^ called by the natives Naio. The 
wood and roots of this tree, when dried, possess a fragrance strongly 
resembling that of the sandalwood. It has also good building and 
excellent burning qualities, and is used for torches in fishing. 

The Eugenia sandwicensis (native name Ohia-ha) is a most durable 
timber, and is used for railroad ties and posts, while Mezoneuron kau- 
aiense (native name Kela) is a very hard wood, closely resembling ebony. 
For fence posts the wood of the Sophora chrysophylla (native name 
Mamame) is said to be the most durable, while it is also a good fire- 
wood. 

The DraccBna aurea (native name Halapepe) was once used hj the 
natives, who carved their idols out of its soft wood. So, also, was 
used the wood of Metroudei'os poJymorpha (native Lehua), the most 
generally prevailing tree on the islands. It is very hard, is a good 
building material, and the best of fuels. 

FIBER PLANTS. 

Bronssonetia papyri f era ^ the well-known paper mulberry, called by 
the natives Wauke, furnishes the bark out of which the famous kapa 
cloth was made. It is not a native of the islands, but was brought 
with the Hawaiians and by them cultivated, as it was by all of the 
Polynesians of the Maori race. Other plants, Plpturus alhldus (native 
name Mamake), which is a native, and Bmhneria stipularis^ to a less 
extent, however, contributed also to the manufacture of kapa. 

In the preparation of the bark for kapa, stipes of SadJerkt cyatheo- 
ides^ after being macerated in water, were beaten together with the 
bast of the above-mentioned trees and made to serve as a sizing, while 
the CheiTodendron guadichaudii (native Olapa) and Myraine lessertlana 
(native Koolea) furnished dyes to color the kapa blue and red. 

The Pandanm odoratisshrius (native Hala) tree furnishes leaves out 



House Doc. No. 3£ 



Plate VII. 











House Doc. No. 368. 



Plate VIII. 





FLORA OF THE ISLANDS. 31 

of which mats are made (PL XXI, fig. 1), while Cy perns Imvigatvs 
(native Ehuawa), a close rehition of our irrepressible coco or nut grass 
(which, hy the way, has found its wa}^ also to the islands), furnishes the 
grass out of which the beautiful and expensive Niihau mats are manu- 
factured. 

A large grass, Paspalumorhiculare, common in swampy or heavy clay 
soils and distasteful to animals, is used by the natives for covering 
their (grass) houses. (See PI. IV, figs. 1 and 2.) 

Valuable fibers of great tenacit}' and durability are obtained from 
TJrera sandwicerisis (native Opuhe) and Touchardia latifolia (native 
Olona). These fibers are used for ropes, fishing lines, and nets. 

Several species of Cihotimn have the bases of the leaf stalks densely 
covered with soft and glossy yellowish wool, which makes a very 
desirable article for stufling pillows and mattresses. Under the name 
of pulu it forms a regular article of export to California. Large forests 
in Hawaii have been ruthlessly destroyed in former times to obtain 
pulu. The natives once practiced tattooing and used the acrid juice of 
the Plambago zeylanicci (native Illieo) to give a black tattoo and of 
SisyryncMuin acre for blue tattoo. 

PritcJmrdia gaudichaudli (native Loulu lelo) furnishes a fruit whose 
kernel is edible while green, and leaves from which are made fine fans 
and hats. The trees are often found badly mutilated, with only one or 
two leaves at the top of the bare tree. 

Two native species of cotton may here be mentioned as belonging to 
the fiber plants, though the natives, unacquainted with spinning and 
weaving, made no use of them. Again, their very short fiber failed, 
perhaps, to attract their attention: Gossypium tomentosum, a spread- 
ing shrub 4 to 6 feet high, hoary, with soft, white tomentum, three to 
four seed in each (3) valve, which are enveloped in a finely adhering 
tawny wool, fibers of which measure 0.3 to 0.6 inch in length. G. 
dryiiarioides^ a small tree 12 to 16 feet high, with red flowers and each 
cell of the capsule with one seed covered with short, brownish wool. 
This plant is rare on the islands and doomed to extinction unless culti- 
vated, since the capsules are imperfectly dehiscent and the seed are 
held and are e?.ten by worms, thus preventing reproduction. Again, 
cattle are extremely fond of the foliage and fruit and quickly destroy 
them in pastures. 

FRTJITS. 

Nor were the islands at time of settlement bare of fruit. The 
Chilian stravfberry {Fragaria chilensw) flourished on the high moun- 
tains of Hawaii and East Maui. The natives hold this berr}^ in high 
esteem, and it in turn serves them well, since it bears from May to 
September. It is also the chief food of the wild Hawaiian goose 
{Bernicla sandwicensis). This goose also feeds upon the berries of a 



32 AGEICULTUEAL EESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

low, prostrate shrub, Coprosma emodeoides (native Krkai neenee), 
which covers the bare lava at elevations of 5,000 to 7,000 feet. The 
Ohelo berry {Vaccimum reticulatimi)^ famous in native song- and story, 
and once proffered as a propitiator}^ offering to Pele, is also a food for 
the native geese. It is a shining, fleshy berry, astringent, but not 
unpleasant in taste, and makes an excellent preserve. (PI. XII, fig. 1.) 
On the high mountains of Hawaii and East Maui it grows gregariously, 
often covering large tracts. 

Among the Eugenias, which are numerous on the islands, maj^ be 
mentioned the rose apple, Eugenia malaccensis (native Ohia ai), occur- 
ring in forest belts on the island of Maui. (PI. XI, fig. 2.) 

The Tahitian chestnut {Inocarj)us edidis) is also regarded as a native 
of the islands. 

MEDICINES. 

The medicines of the natives were mainly supplied from the flora of 
the islands. The plants of the genus Boerhaavia possessed drasac 
properties and formed a part of the materia medica of every Kahuna. 

A close relative of the sweet potato, Ipomma iri)^ularis, which wraps 
itself in dense entangled masses about the trees and shrubs of the for- 
est, has a root which is a powerful cathartic, much used in native medi- 
cine. It is also employed externally in bruises and fractures of bones. 
The yellowish spore powder from the Psilotum triquetrum (native 
Pipi) is a favorite remedy for diarrhea in children. The Teyhroda 
piscatoria possesses narcotic properties kindred to digitalis, and with 
similar action on the heart. It is used by the natives for stupefying 
fish. 

liEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 

The leguminous family is well represented in the native flora of the 
islands. Among others may be mentioned two species of Mucuna, the 
genus to which our velvet bean belongs, viz, M. gigantea and M. urens 
(the latter, however, is not a desirable plant, since its young shoots 
possess stinging hairs, and hence it is called cow-itch plant); one spe- 
cies of Canavalia, C galatea; one of Phaseolus, P. truxillensis] three 
of Vigna, Y. lutea, Y. mndfwicensls^ and Y. oahuensis. 

FLOWERS. 

Flowers of various types and beautiful colors were everywhere 
found. The Lahordea grayana and Z. glabra (native Kamakahala) 
were so highly prized for stringing into wreaths (leis) that they were 
tabooed to common people and reserved exclusively for the King and 
high chiefs. 

The fragrant and glossy branches of the Alyxia olwceformw (native 



FLORA OF THE ISLANDS. 33 

Maile) were largely used and highly esteemed for decorating their 
houses and lanais on festive occasions. 

The Dro^era Jong i folia is an insectivorous plant, and its leaves are 
covered with flies in ever}^ stage of decomposition. 

GRASSES. 

Several excellent grasses were found growing upon the islands when 
settled b}' the Hawaiians, although no grazing animals were ever on 
them until Vancouver landed the first cattle and sheep in 1793. Ma- 
nienie {Stenotaplxrmn americanum)^ a creeping grass of great excel- 
lence, is found on all of the islands. Panlcuin jy^uriemi (native Kukai 
puaa) is also highly relished by stock. It occurs in' the lower and 
middle regions of all of the islands. Heteropogon contortus (native 
Pili), common on all of the islands, is very troublesome to sheep on 
account of its awns getting entangled in the wool. 

Chry^sojyogon aciculatws (native Piipii) covering dr}- and open plains 
and slopes, gives good pasture for cattle, but undesirable for sheep on 
account of adhering spikelets and awns. 

A curious propert}" of the genus Pisonia is turned into useful account 
by the native woodsman of the island. The fruiting perigone of this 
genus exudes a very viscid glue. It sticks tightly to any object it 
touches. The woodsman utilizes this property in catching birds. The 
native name of this genus is Papala. 

PLANTS INTRODUCED BY THE NATIVES. 

When the Hawaiians migrated to these islands they brought with 
them at least twenty-four species of plants, all of which extend through- 
out Poh^nesia into Malaysia and have accompanied the Maori race in 
all their migrations, 3'ielding them food, intoxicating beverages, mate- 
rials for cloth, rope, and other domestic purposes. Some were connected 
with their religious worship, and others were designed for shade trees. 

Professor Hillebrand says that the seedless breadfruit, the sugar cane, 
banana, and taro could not possibly have reached the islands by any 
other than human agency. There is an abundance of evidence to show 
that frequent visits were made to southern island groups in remote 
times. Therefore the number of plants introduced by them ma}' be 
much larger than those given above. The tAventy-four known to have 
been introduced are the following: 

Calo2?hyllum inoj^hyllum, a littoral tree, valuable for cabinetwork, 
known throughout Polynesia. It is planted around habitations. The 
native name is Kamani. The oil from the nuts is extensive!}' used as 
a remedy for rheumatism and bruises. The yellow juice of the stem 
makes the Tacamahaca resin of commerce and is highly esteemed as a 
scent by the natives. 

H. Doc. 368 3 



34 AGKICULTUEAL KESOUKCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

Paritium tiliaceuiii (native Hau) is planted near houses on account 
of its shade and trained into arbors or lanais. The wood is very lig-ht 
and therefore used for the outriggers of canoes, while the bark fur- 
nishes a fiber for ropes, and the flowers give a decoction highly 
esteemed for bronchial and catarrhal troubles. 

Thes2)es{a 2)oj>ul)te<t (native Milo) is found in and around villages on 
the seacoast. This tree is a favorite on all the islands from Madagas- 
car to Hawaii. The tree is connected with their religion and is 
esteemed as sacred, and hence its wide distribution. The home of 
Kamehameha I at Waikiki was surrounded b}" this tree and hence the 
inference that the Hawaiians, up to a recent date, held it in high 
esteem. 

Eugenia tnalaccensis (native Ohia) is found in all of the islands in 
the lower forest zone, occurring in clusters or belts. This tree occurs 
on all of the larger islands of the Pacitic Ocean and is highl}- esteemed 
for its fruit. 

Lagenaria vidgarh (native Ipu) is the bottle gourd, found cultivated 
by the natives on the discovery of the islands. These gourds served 
as receiving vessels in the household, while the larger ones, covered 
with shark skins, were used as drums. The Kuhunas used the pulp 
and seed as a drastic medicine. Closely allied to this plant is the 
Cucurbita maxima (native Ipu nui), the large calabash gourd which 
was found growing on the islands at the time of discovery, though 
unknown on the other Polynesian Islands. It is used largely for serv- 
ing poi and holding water and other liquids. It is sometimes several 
feet in diameter. 

Cordia suhcordata (native Kou), a tree formerl}" planted around set- 
tlements near the seashore, on account of the shade given by its exten- 
sive foliage, is found on all of the islands from Zanzibar to Hawaii, and 
seems to have been the constant companion of the Maori race in their 
migrations. The soft but durable wood is highly prized for cabinet- 
work, and it is also cut into cups and bowls which, when polished, dis- 
plays wavy lines of light and dark brown colors. 

Ipomwa batatas (native Uala) is our sweet potato, and next to taro 
constitutes the chief article of diet with the natives. They claim a 
large number of varieties on the island, diflering in shape, color, and 
size of the tuber, as well as in the color and shape of the leaf. This 
plant, like the taro, is still extensively cultivated all over the islands. 

£rousso?ietta j)aj?yrifera, the paper mulberry, furnishing a bark for 
kapa cloth, has already been mentioned. (See p. 30.) . 

Artocarjnts ineisa (native Ulu) is the breadfruit of commerce and 
has accompanied the Polj-nesian race wherever it has gone. (PI. XIII, 
fig. 1.) In Hawaii, on account of its temperate climate, it has never 
succeeded as well as farther south. It fruits from elune to August, 
and this short season seems not to have justified extensive culture nor 



House Doc, No. 368. 



Plate IX. 





House Doc. No. ?68. 



Plate X. 





FLORA OF THE ISLANDS. 35 

the propagation of numerous varieties as elsewhere, for only one 
variety is known in Hawaii against twenty or more enumerated in 
more southern groups of islands. This one variet}^ is seedless and 
hence is propagated by cuttings. In recent years a seed-bearing 
variety has been introduced from the Caroline Islands, and another 
species, known as the jack fruit (^1. Integrifolid) has been added to the 
cultivated fruits. Ramie {B. tenacusima or B. nhea) has been intro- 
duced since the discovery of the islands and extensivel}' cultivated, and 
several years ago the government of the islands offered a large prize 
in money for a machine which would successfully decorticate this 
plant. 

Aleurites moluccana (native Kukui) is the candle-nut tree of the Eng- 
lish. The natives string the nuts on sticks and burn them for lighting 
their houses. The expressed oil from the seed is also burned in lamps, 
and used to mix with paints. From the juice of the flesh v covering 
of the nut is obtained a black d}'e, which was also used in tattooing 
the skin. The tree is the prevailing one in the woods of the lower 
zone, and can be recognized at a great distance b}'^ the paleness of its 
foliage. It extends over all the Pacitic isles and has the same name 
everywhere. 

Piper methysticum (native Awa) is the plant from which all Polyne- 
sians extract their intoxicating beverage. It is still cultivated around 
the settlements of the natives, who continue to manufacture their 
favorite drink. While on the islands, the United States marshal recited 
instances where he had to break up several small factories of this 
vicious drink and how surprised and indignant were the natives at his 
interference with their immemorial customs. 

Cocos nxicifera (native Niu) is our well-known cocoanut tree or palm 
(PI. VI, tig. 1). Though its original habitat is placed by the botanists on 
the western coast of the Isthmus of Panama, it is known to have been 
grown upon all the Pol3"nesian islands. Hawaii is rather north and 
with too temperate a climate to grow the cocoanut to its full perfec- 
tion, yet there are large groves everywhere and the fruit is highly 
esteemed, especially in its green state. The milk from unripe cocoa- 
nuts is quite a popular beverage in Honolulu, and several stands exist 
throughout the city which dispense this drink. Formerly onl}- one 
variety existed on the islands, but recently several new ones have been 
introduced. 

Colocasia antiquorum is the taro, or kalo (PI. VIII, fig. 1) of all 
the Polynesians. It has been and is now the principal food of the 
natives (PI. VI, fig. 2) of these and other Polynesian islands. In 
growth and appearance it is like our Calladium, but is usuall}^ culti- 
vated like rice, under water, though a highland variet}^ is grown in 
the rainy belt. It is propagated b}^ the tops of the corms, which 
quickly take root, requiring fifteen months to mature. Like the 



36 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

potato, it has man}^ varieties, distinguished by ([uality of the tuber 
and the color of leaf stalk. The plant contains an acrid principle 
which is destroyed by cooking. The tuber is eaten boiled or baked, 
or as poi, the latter being the favorite and chief food of the natives. 
It is prepared by pounding the baked taro and mixing with water and 
permitting it to ferment for a short time, when it is cooked again into 
a thick stick}" mass and eaten. It is said to be extremely fattening in 
its properties. The Chinese have several factories for the manufac- 
ture of poi in Honolulu. The leafstalks of the taro are also eaten, 
resembling asparagus in taste. 

Alocasla macrorrJdza (native Apii) furnishes a food to the natives in 
times of scarcity from its coarse farinaceous stems. It is cultivated 
to a limited extent only, in small patches of dry land in mountain 
recesses or in the lower zone of forests. It is naturalized in many of 
the Polynesian islands. 

3fusa sapientum (native Maia) is the banana of commerce. PI. V, 
fig. 1, shows a banana plantation on Waikiki road. It is at present 
found growing wild in the mountain gorges, where once the natives 
cultivated it. It is also largely culti^^ated, being one of the exports 
from the islands to San Francisco and other ports of the Western coast. 
The natives have been cultivating this plant from time immemorial, 
and recognize several varieties, one of which with a reddish sap, 
tenacious liber, and copper-colored fruit, occasionally producing seed, is 
perhaps indigenous. Since the introduction of the Chinese, the 
Chinese banana, M. cavendlshii^ has almost superseded all other varie- 
ties. This is due to its low height — a protection against the prevailing 
trade winds — and its superior fruiting properties. The Brazilian 
variety, much taller, is also grown to some extent, and shares with the 
Chinese the power to withstand the destructive effects of the wind. 
Both of these varieties were introduced from Tahiti. The fine flavor 
of the latter variety gives it high favor over all others, but it is only a 
moderate bearer. On the islands is to be found also the 3fusa textilis 
of the Philippines, which furnish the Manila hemp of commerce. It 
was introduced in 1866 and is now well distributed over all of the islands. 
It has a few undeveloped black seed in its fruit, which enables an iden- 
tification of this variety at once. It grows to the height of 18 to 20 
feet, and freely multiplies by suckers. The growing of this plant on 
a large scale for its fiber in the manufacture of manila rope is one of 
the possible future industries of these islands. The cultivation of 
bananas on a large scale is performed in rows 8 to 12 feet apart, with 
a stream of running water between each row. The Cavendish variety 
is usually grown, and the large yield of fruit is disposed of b}" export 
to the United States. This industry can be profitably increased. In 
the gardens in and around Honolulu many varieties of bananas may 
be found. 



FLOKA OF THE ISLAIN^DS. 37 

Zmgiher zentmhet {native Awapuhi) is a common plant covering in 
many instances the open grounds of the forests of the lower zone. 
This species extends over all of the Polynesian islands, although the 
natives of Hawaii seem to have no use for it. It is closely related to 
the ginger of commerce {Z. offichuile). 

Curcuma Tonga (native Olena) is our turmeric of Commerce, and 
occurs scattered through the open glades of the entire group. From 
it the natives extract a dye to color their kapa cloth yellow. It, too, 
follows the Polynesian race in all its peregrinations. The tubers are 
deep 3"ellow inside. 

Tacca pinnatiflda (native Pia) has large roundish tubers which fur- 
nish the arrowroot of commerce. This plant is found wild in the open 
woods and grassy plains of the lower regions of the islands. It begins 
its foliage early in the spring and loses it by the end of summer. It 
was once cultivated extensively hy the natives, but it appears to have 
been entirel}" neglected in late years. It is common through Polynesia, 
Malaysia, Philippines, Madagascar, and eastern Africa. 

Dioscorea sativa (native Hoi) is a }■ am common in the forests of the 
lower zone, and was once extensively cultivated for sale to the whaling 
ships. Its native name follows it through all of the Pacific islands to 
Sumatra. I), pentaphylla (native Piia) is a small yam, never cul- 
tivated, but found growing wild on the islands. It has the same 
geographic range as the preceding. 

(ordyJlne terminalis (native Ti) is extremely common on all of the 
islands at the lower edge of the forests. The leaves of this plant are 
in universal use as wrappers for fish, food, etc., and were formerh' 
used for plates. Fish and other meats and vegetables are cooked in 
them. The leaves also make good forage for horses and cattle. The 
natives make a crude beer from the roots, and latel}^ have learned how 
to distill from the beer a strong rum. This plant has a wide geo- 
graphical range through the islands of the Pacific and Indian oceans. 

Saccharum ojjicinarwn (native Ko) is our sugar cane, the cultivation 
of which is now the chief industry of the islands, and brings to them 
enormous annual profits. Sugar cane was found in the hands of the 
natives wheji the islands were discovered, and hence generally believed 
that it was indigenous. (PI. XVIII, fig. 1.) But since it has the 
identical name here as with all of the Polynesian-Maori tribes it is 
more reasonable to suppose that the natives brought it with them to 
these islands. There are to be found on the islands the following 
varieties thought to be introduced b}- the natives: Kokea, Uala, 
Oleana, and Pupuha, which have greenish-yellow stalks; Honuaula, 
Papaa, and Ohia, which have dark purple stalks; and Ainakea, Kamio, 
Manulele, Akilolo, and Lau Kono, which have striped stalks. These 
canes were introduced into the United States twelve years ago, and 
are now growing upon the grounds of the sugar experiment station, 



38 AGRICULTUEAL RESOUECES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

New Orleans. The above varieties are adapted to the different eleva- 
tions, the green varieties thriving best on the seacoast, the variegated 
in the middle zones, while the darker kinds ma}" be grown successfully 
at verv high elevations. A so-called flowerless variety, Puaole, which 
has a vigorous growth, rich juice, and wide adaptabilit}^ is in favor for 
cultivation in high altitudes, since it tassels very late, and therefore 
permits of a longer season for harvest. 

Besides the above there has been introduced in recent years a num- 
ber of varieties, but the one chief!}" cultivated on the islands now is 
the Lahaina, or Keni Keni, which was originally brought from the 
Marquesas Islands by Capt. Pardon Edwards, and was first planted at 
Lahaina in Maui, whence its name. On lands from the sea level 
to an altitude of 1,500 feet, this cane is now preferred to all others. 
Its introduction into the islands has increased enormously the yield 
of sugar. The Rose Bamboo, Cavengerie, and Yellow Caledonia have 
also been introduced, and are grown to some extent. 

PLANTS INTRODUCED SINCE THE DISCOVERY OF THE ISLANDS. 

Captain Cook records the following as found on the islands in 1778: 

Taro of large size and quality; sweet potatoes, 12 to 14 pounds 
each; plantains, five or six varieties; breadfruit scarce; a sweet root 
like a j^am in form, probably the root of the Ti plant; sugar cane of 
large size and good quality; cocoanuts; ava root, and gourds; fowls 
scarce; hogs abundant; dogs used as food; geese, and large white 
pigeons. 

Captain Cook, on Sunday, February 1, 1778, left on the island of 
Niihau one ram goat and two ewes, a boar and a sow of English breed, 
and the seeds of melons, pumpkins, and onions. 

Captain Colnet left a ram and a ewe on Kauai some time about 1780. 

Captain Vancouver, in 1792 to 179-1, left vines and orange plants, 
almond and garden seeds, goats, geese, sheep, and cattle. He also 
landed some useful culinary utensils, implements of husbandry, 
smiths' and carpenters' tools. The cattle he gave to King Kame- 
hameha I, and induced him to issue a taboo against eating them for 
ten years. 

Don Francisco de Paula Marin came to the islands in 1791, and 
spent the remainder of his life, dying in 1837. He appears to have 
served the king in many capacities. His early journal shows that he 
cultivated pineapples, oranges, beans, cabbages, potatoes, peaches, 
cherimoyas, horse-radish, melons, tobacco, carrots, asparagus, maize, 
fig trees, lemons, lettuce; and had made Kukui oil, cocoanut oil, 
candles, tiles, hay, cigars, beer, and brandy. 

Later he records that he planted coffee, cotton, cloves, tomatoes, 
turnips, pepper and chilis, wheat and barley, and manufactured castor 
oil, soap, molasses, lime, pickles, sirup of lemon juice, and sugar. 



House Doc, No. 368 



Plate XI. 





House Doc. No 368. 



Plate XII 




Fig. 1.— Ohelo Berry (Vaccinium reticulatum). 





r^ 


vmmkij^' '^^■I'W^B^C 


g^ 


•H^V^BST «^^^^Pml .^Hh^S^^^? 


R 




P 


-^siI^iBllr ^ 


r 



Fig. 2.— Sapodilla iAchras sapota). 



FLORA OF THE ISLANDS. o9 

From the above, taken from his journal, it will be seen that much of 
the present wealth of the islands started from seeds, roots, and plants 
introduced and cultivated b}^ Don Francisco de Paula jVIarin. He 
seems to havx conducted a real experiment station, combining both 
agriculture and manufacture. 

It seems that several plants introduced by Marin became extinct, 
for it is recorded that Lord Byron, in the Blonde^ 1825, introduced 
coffee plants taken on board at Rio Janeiro. 

This brings the introduction of seeds and plants and animals up to 
1820. After that date a new and systematic agency began on the 
islands. The American missionaries then arrived, and under instruc- 
tions from the home board looked after the material development of 
the islands as well as the spiritual welfare of the natives. Since that 
time new seeds, plants, roots, implements, and utensils have been 
continuouslj^ introduced. 

The recital given above will show that most of the common garden, 
field, and orchard plants were introduced soon after the discovery of 
the islands. The following are some of the prominent plants that 
have been introduced in modern times: 

FRUITS. 

Tamarindiis indica^ the tamarind, is cultivated and also found 
growing wild around old settlements. Like lemons and limes it is 
used to make a refreshing drink. 

Ac/iras sapota, the Sapotilla pear, is cultivated largely in gardens 
and its fruit highh^ esteemed. (PI. XII, fig. 2.) 

Er'iobotrya japonica^ the loquat or mespilus plum, is much culti- 
vated and fruit locally esteemed. It will not bear long transportation. 

Pkysalis peruviana is common in open mountain slopes and in 
clearings in the woods. The edible berry is of a pleasant flavor and 
makes an excellent jelly. It is generally known as Cape gooseberry. 

Ananas sativa, the pineapple (PI. V, fig. 2), is extensively culti- 
vated, nearh^ every small farmer having a patch. There are several 
varieties grown. The supply exceeds local demand, and considerable 
quantities are exported to the western United States. It seems splen- 
didly adapted to these islands, and the fruit is of excellent flavor. In 
some instances this fruit has escaped cultivation and is now growing 
wild. 

Carica j'X{/X(r3/rt, known locally as the papaia, is a native of Brazil. 
It was introduced early, and has an extensive cultivation and exists as 
escapes around old settlements. The fruit is borne in clusters just 
below the limbs of the tree (PI. VIII, tig. 2), each one attaining the 
size of a canteloupe, which it resembles in color and appearance. It 
is variousl}^ esteemed, some enjoying it as a morning appetizer. The 



40 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

juice contains a digestible principle like pepsin, and has the property 
of rendering tough meat tender. The seeds are used a« a vermifuge. 

Passifiora quadrangulii< and P. Jaiirlfolia are both cultivated for 
their delicious fruits. The former is called Grenadilla and the latter 
has a yellow fruit. The purple fruited water lemon, /-*. edulls, also 
grown for the fruit, is not onl}" cultivated generally, but has escaped 
into the woods of east Maui. 

Psidium guayava. — The guava is no longer cultivated. It was early 
introduced, and finding a congenial soil and climate has grown wild 
and has spread over the islands, forming dense thickets. It bears 
fruit in great abundance (PI. XIII, fig. 2), which falling and decaying 
upon the lava soils, assist largely by their acid properties in disinte- 
grating them. There is here a fine field for the manufacture of guava 
jelly on a large scale, thousands of tons of the fruit wasting ever}^ 
year. Locally some of the progressive housekeepers make annually 
a few jars of this jelh", which is of excellent flavor and attractive 
color. P. cattleyanum^ the cattleya or Chinese guava, is cultivated to 
a limited extent. 

CITRUS FAMILY. 

The entire citrus family has been grown on the islands. Doubtless 
there are locations on the leeward side of the islands where they can 
be grown to perfection, when selected varieties are introduced. Up 
to the present no systematic attempt has been made to grow the 
improved varieties upon a large scale, and therefore their profitable 
culture is 3'et problematical. 

The orange {Citrus aurantiacwm) was early introduced, growing it 
from seed, and the agricultural history of the islands is full of accounts 
of the successful cultivation of this delicious fruit. It was once 
exported, but is now grown only for home uses and in limited quanti- 
ties. Nowhere on the islands is there a large grove of selected trees. 
The lime {C. Jhnetta) is more extensivel}" grown and is served at all 
the hotels and restaurants of the cit}' of Honolulu. The citron {C. 
medica) is cultivated in 3'ards and gardens, but the varieties are not 
of the most improved type. The kumquat {C. japonica)^ both the 
oblong and round, is found in many gardens, but is not an article 
of commerce. The shaddock {C. decumana) is occasionall}" found 
ornamenting the j^ards in the cities or on the plantations, but is not 
extensively raised. The pomelo (6^. jpomelamis) seems to be less 
extensively cultivated than any other of the citrus family. All of the 
above, save the pomelo, are found W'ild in the deep recesses of some 
of the vallej^s, having escaped cultivation. 

Mang'ifera indica, the mango of commerce, is receiving perhaps 
more attention just now than an}" other fruit. (PI. IX, fig. 1.) As 
many as twelve or fifteen varieties have already been introduced. It 



FLORA OF THE ISLANDS. 41 

is a delicious fruit, a beautiful tree, and decidedl}^ ornamental in an}- 
ground. Sjyondias dulcis, known as the Wi fruit from Tahiti, is 
sparingly cultivated. 

Anacardiuin occidentale^ the cashew nut, is occasionally found in 
cultivation. It is a delicious fruit, larger than a peach, of a 3'ellow 
color, and with the nut or seed growing on the outside of the fruit. 
It is t\'orthy of more extended culture. 

Mammea americana^ the mammee apple, is grown to a limited extent. 
(PL IX, fig. 2.) It is worthy of more general cultivation. 

Anona cherimoUa (custard apple from the Ecuadorian Andes), ^4. 
S(2uamosa (sweet sop), and A. muricata (sour sop), are cultivated to a 
small extent. The}^ are of easy culture, no special pains being needed 
to make them a success in the Tropics. Thev are usually propagated 
from seed. The custard apple is found as an escape in man}* places. 

The most attractive and popular fruit on the islands is perhaps the 
avocado, or alligator pear {Persea gratissima), borne on a tree of 
medium height and size. The fruit is usualty pear shaped, though 
sometimes club shaped and occasionall}' curved like a crook-necked 
squash, or quite spherical. (PI. X, fig. 1.) It is green in color until 
it reaches maturity, when it assumes a purplish or yellowish hue. 
The fruits weigh from 8 to 10 ounces each, and the single seed is 
about the size and shape of a boy's top. The pulp surrounding the 
seed has a delicate texture and is highly esteemed by the educated 
palate. It is usually served for breakfast with salt, pepper, and 
vinegar. It does not bear transportation well, and hence can never 
become an article of export. 

The pomegranate {Piinwa granatum) is found growing in many 
yards, but the trees are not of the improved varieties whose fruit are 
so palatable and juicy. It seems to be planted here more as an orna- 
ment than for its fruit. 

The Chinese have recently introduced their favorite fruit, the Litchi 
nut {N^ejyhelkim liichi)^ which is fast growing in popularit}'. The 
fruit resembles a very large and richly colored strawberry, being about 
li inches in diameter, with a single large brown seed. (PI. X, fig. 2.) 

The fig {Ficus carica) was formerly grown in large quantities and in 
numerous varieties, but its cultivation is now greatly diminished on 
account of the attacks on its fruit b}^ the '"•minah" bird, which was 
recently introduced to assist in eradicating injurious insects. To 
protect the fruit it is now necessary to inclose the trees in wire gauze, 
an expense indulged in by men of means only. 

Fragaria vesca and F. grandiflora^ strawberries, are cultivated and 
thrive well at altitudes above 300 feet, j^ielding fruit at least five 
months of summer. 

A few seedling varieties of peaches are grown from seacoast to ele- 
vations up to 3,000 feet. The trees fruit and flower simultaneously. 



42 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

The apple, at least some few varieties, is reported as successfully 
grown along with the peach, while the pear is rarely ever successful. 

The cherry, almond, and apricot are failures. Blackberries, rasp- 
berries, currants, and gooseberries are not found on the islands. 

Only the pineapple and banana are grown in such quantities as to 
permit of extensive exportation. Statistics show that in 18!»7, 75,S35 
bunches of bananas, valued at $75,000, and' 149,515 pineapples, valued 
at $14,500, were shipped to the States and Canada. It is impossible to 
give the amount of each consumed at home. These fruits have little 
or no competition, and hence their cultivation may be expanded 
without fear of overstocking the Western markets of America. The 
growing of other fruits is limited by the local demands of the islands, 
since the}^ will either not bear long transportation, or if so, thej^ will 
compete with the home-grown articles of California. 

Grape culture, now carried on to a limited extent by Portuguese, 
who have learned a method of having ripe grapes in their vineyard 
the 3"ear round, can be greatly expanded with profit. 

As supplementary to above, I insert a letter with a list of fruit trees 
furnished me by Prof. A. Koebele. 

Honolulu, H. I., August 17, 1900. 

Sir: As requested, I herewith submit to you au incomplete list of fruit trees, etc., 
of the Hawaiian Islands. Since no publications are at hand, the classified list of the 
plants of the Royal Botanical Gardens, Peradeniya, Ceylon, 1888, has been used as 
a guide. 

Respectfully, A. Koebele, Entomologii^t. 

Partial list of fruit trees growing on Hawaiian Islands. 

Anona cherimolia. Nephelium Utchi. 

Anona muricata. Nephelium longana — both in bearing. 

Anona reticulata. Nephelium (Pometia) pinnatum (several 

Anona squamosa. small trees, from Fiji, November, 1899). 

Nymphsea lotus is largely raised to eat. Mangifera indica, var. 

Flacourtia sejjiaria. Aiiacardium occidentale. 

Garcinia cambogia. Spondias dulcis. 

Garcinia mangostana — tree bearing since Spondias lutea. 

1897 on Kauai. Spondias purpurea (Mexico, 1897). 

Garcinia spp. Arachis hypognxi. 

Mammea americana. Andira inermis, vars. 
Durio zibethinus — fruiting for several years. Ceratonia siliqua. 

Cola acuminata — fruiting on Kauai. Tamarindus indica. 

Theobroma cacao — doing well. Hymenxa courbaril (Mexico, 1897). 
Erythroxylon coca (seed from Ceylon, Dillenia indica (Hongkong, 1900). 

1900 ) . Prosopis juliflora dulcis. 

Averrhoa bilimbi (from Fiji, 1889). Clirysobalamis icaco (Fiji, 1899). 

Averrhoa carambola. Prunus persica vars. 

Citrus, numerous species. Rubus sp. var. 

^Egle marmelos. Eriobotrya japonica. 

Zizyphus jujuba. Pyrus communis. 

Vitis vinifera — two crops per year. Terminalia catappa. 



House Doc. No. 368. 



Plate XIII. 




Fig. 1.— Bread Fruit (Artocarpus incisa). 







1 


:. "%^ «*; 


J 


''1 r . * ,^ 


^5 


^* >%k^ 


f^vj 


p^^Sk! 


^ 



Fig. 2.— Guavas iPsidium guayava). 



House Dec, No, it 



Plate XIV. 




Fig. 1.— Preparing for Rice Planting. 




Ma 







Fig. 2.— Rice Field. 



FLORA OF THE ISLANDS. 



43 



Pskliuni guayava. 
Fsidium cattleyanum- 
Psidium sp. 
Pimento acris. ^ 

Pimento officinalis. 
Eugenia brasiliensis. 
Eugenia caryophyllata (clove). 
Eugenia jamhos. 
Eugenia malaccensis. 
Eugenia uniflora. 
Eugenia vulgaris. 
Barringlonia alba. 
Barringtonia edulis. 
Punica granatum. 

Passiflora spp. ; all the species doing well. 
Carica papaya vars. 
Trichosanthes spp. 
Lagenaria vulgaris. 
Luffa sp. 
Benincam sp. 
Cucumis )neh. 
Cucumis sadvus. 
Citndus vulgaris. 
Cucurbita moschata. 
Cucurbita pepo. 

Sechiumedide (Mexico, 1897; entirely de- 
stroyed by Dacus cucurbidse). 
Opuntia diUenii. 
Yangueria edulis. 
Coffea arabica. 
Coffea liberica. 

Coffea bengalensis (Ceylon, China, 1899). 
Morinda cilrifolia. 
Clirysopkylhun cainito. 
Chrysophyllum oliviforme. 
Lucuma mamosa (Mammee). 
Achras sapota. 

Bassia lalifolia (Ceylon, 1895). 
Strychnos nux-vomica. 



Ipomcea batatas. 
Lycopersicwn esculentum. 
Solanum melongena. 
Solanum tuberosum. 
Cypliomandra betacea. 
Capsicum vars. 
Piper nigrum. 
Myristica fragrans. 
Persea gratissima vars. 
Macadamia ternifolia. 
Aleurifes triloba. 
Manihot utilissima. 
Celtis occidentalis. 
Celtis sinensis. 
Morus spp. 
Ficus carica. 
Artocarpus incisa. 
Artocarpus intergrifolia. 
Dion edule. 

Elettaria cardamomum. 
Zingiber officinale. 
Maranta arundinacea. 
Musa paradisiaca vars. 
Ananas sativum. 
Tacca pinnatifida. 
Dioscorea spp. 
Allium spp. 

Caladium esculentum var. 
Areca catechu. 

Cocos nucifera vars., and many other use- 
ful palms. 
Olea spp., not bearing. 
Physalis peruviana. 
Physalis franchiti. 
Rubus macraei. 

Vaccinium reticulatum, " Ohelo berry." 
Fragaria spp. 
Vanilla, several species. 



VALUABLE GRASSES, GRAINS, AND FORAGE PLANTS. 

Mention has already been made of the introduction of corn, wheat, 
oats, and barley. 

Corn is still grown in considerable quantities upon one or two of 
the islands. There is yet a spirited controversy as to the best .season 
of the year to plant this crop. It will probably never be grown 
largely on the islands, since it requires practically similar conditions 
for growth as sugar cane, and the latter, as long as present prices 
obtain, will always occupy all of the available land. 

Wheat was once extensively cultivated and exported to California 
during- the grold fever of 1849, but was discontinued when the latter 



44 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

country ])egan to grow its own wheat and rendered importation 
unprofitable. It i.s said that the grain abounded in gluten to .such an 
extent that it required the addition of foreign flour to make good light 
bread. 

Oats and barley were grown to some extent in former times, but 
have almost disappeared from the islands as cultivated crops. Thq 
former is frequentl}" found wild as an escape from cultivation. 

Rice {Orysa satira) is now the second crop in the islands in quantity 
and value. The cultivation began in 1860. Now every available acre 
of land adjoining the sea capable of cultivation and susceptible of 
being watered is under cultivation. Only the Chinese are engaged in 
this industry, paying for rent |40 to $50 per acre. They grow two 
crops per year on the same land. After the field is once prepared and 
watered, it is never permitted to be unoccupied. As fast as one crop 
is harvested another is planted. The soil is prepared by using a kind 
of iron harrow drawn b}- a Chinese water buffalo, imported from 
China, through the water to pulverize clods and stir the soil. (PI. 
XIV. fig. 1.) The rice plants are taken in large bunches from a bed 
thickly sown, and transplanted by hand in checks 6 to 12 inches apart, 
in water several inches deep. Long lines are frequently used to keep 
the row^s straight. (PI. XIV, fig. 2.) It is a slow and tedious 
process, and onl}" the persistent industr}^ of a Chinaman would essa}^ 
such a task. The rice is harvested with a sickle and trodden out by 
horses on a hard floor. It is prepared for market in the crudest of 
mills, located on the shores of the ocean and propelled l)y artesian 
watei" coming from wells at a higher elevation. The waterwheels of 
these mills are 10 feet or more high and 1-li feet wide. The wheel 
turns a pair of crude stones and works a set of pounders, all wrought 
from the surrounding lava rocks. The rice thus treated is winnowed 
from baskets made special!}^ for this purpose, the prevailing northeast 
trade winds being the valuable motive power. After winnowing, the 
rice is carefully assorted by passing it through a series of sieves, when 
it is marketed. Prime rice was selling in Honolulu during the summer 
at Iri cents per pound. After witnessing the laborious and tedious 
operations of growing rice and preparing it for market, the head 
Chinaman was asked if he could profitably grow rice and prepare it 
for market at the present price, after paying the usual rent. His 
quick reply was, "Two crops a year; one crop pay expenses; the other 
pay me." If the persistent Chinaman can, by such laborious methods, 
wring a profit out of rice culture, it is almost certain that with 
improved implements for sowing and harvesting and up-to-date mills 
to prepare the grain for market there would be enormous gains in 
extensive cultivation of this cereal on the islands. 

The yield of clean rice was from 1,000 to 1,500 pounds per acre, 
which means a yield per year of twice this amount. The total yield 



FLOEA OF THE ISLANDS. 45 

of the islands is not far from 10,000,000 pounds. A large amount is 
consumed on the islands, while the export will reach 6,000,000 to 
8,000,000 pounds annually. 

SORGHUMS. 

Sorghum Tulgare^ both broom and chicken corn, are grown to some 
extent, but both have escaped and are now naturalized in many places. 
The latter is esteemed as an excellent forage crop, but is not so exten- 
sively cultivated as S. saccharatum^ which is a great favorite with the 
dairies and on some plantations. It is grown largely around Honolulu 
by irrigation for feeding the cows which furnish milk to the city. 
From one sowing a large number of crops can be obtained. It is 
thought to l)e the most profitable crop for forage on the islands, and 
it is fed in conjunction with bran, crushed algaroba beans, etc. The 
large demand for seed of this plant b}' the islanders attests its great 
popularity. 

LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 

The most important of this famih' now thoroughly naturalized is 
Desmodiurii uncinatum^ a native of South America and common in 
Jamaica. It was introduced in early times and is now widel}" dis- 
seminated. It affords excellent grazing for all kinds of stock. It is 
locally known as Spanish or Chile clover. The ranchman esteems it 
as the best food in his pastures. 

Medicago liqmlina is found growing near Honolulu and was intro- 
duced in very early times. It affords a fairly good pasturage. 

2L sativa^ alfalfa, is cultivated by several farmers on the islands, 
and the writer saw a fine crop growing under irrigation on the dairy 
ranch of Mr. Paul Isenberg, of Waialae, With an abundance of water 
for irrigation, there is no reason wh}^ the coast lands can not grow 
this crop as successfully as thej'^ do in California. 

DoJiclKM lahlah, a native of tropical Asia, was early introduced and 
originallj^ grown for its beans, but is now dispersed. 

Cajaniis indicus^ the dhal of India, was also introduced early and is 
now found growing abundantly near old settlements. 

GRASSES. 

Bermuda grass, so abundant and so highly esteemed in the South, 
has found a permanent and successful habitation on the islands. The 
yards of Honolulu are sodded with it. It is spreading over waste 
places, crowding out everything else, and affording valuable pasture 
for stock. It is said to have been introduced b}^ Dr. Judd in 1835. 
It thrives only to an elevation of 800 feet. Its botanical name is 
Cynodon dactylon^ and it is called b}'' the natives Manienie, which 
means creeping grass, a name given also bj^ them to a native grass 



46 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

{Stenotaphriim ainericanum) alreadj^ described. It is used to bind light 
sands together on the coast. 

Poa annuel^ the June grass of this country, is widelj' spread along 
the water courses in the upland pastures of all the islands. 

Efiisine indica is found on the rich cultivated grounds of the lower 
regions. * 

Paniciim jumentorum^ Guinea grass, is cultivated by many dairymen 
with great success. It affords, under irrigation, a number of cuttings 
from one seeding. 

RicJuirdsonia scabra^ though not a grass, should lind its place among 
the forage and pasture crops. It is abundant in the cornfields of 
southern Alabama and Florida, and a native of South America and the 
West Indies. It here grows wild on the pasture lands. It is only a 
fair forage plant. It is erroneously called in the South, Mexican 
clover. 

The commissioner of agriculture of Hawaii has imported the fol- 
lowing varieties of saltbushes for pastures in the arid regions: Atriplex 
halimoides, one of the best of the saltbushes, and A. numm.ularia'', the 
tallest and most fattening of the Australian pastoral saltbushes. Sheep 
and cattle pastured on this plant are said to remain free of liver fluke, 
which seriously infects the cattle of some of the islands. Some assert 
that it will cure this disease and other allied ailments. Other species 
introduced are A. spongiom and A. prostrata^ both valuable salt- 
bushes, and A. vesicarin., a dwarf variety of great resistance to 
extreme drought. It is both palatable and nutritious. Upon the arid 
ridges of the leeward sides of the islands these saltbushes, if properly 
attended to, would be valuable adjuncts to the capacity of the islands 
for stock raising. 

NOXIOUS WEEDS. 

The following are known to have been introduced: 

Geranium carolimanum, a native of North America, which has 
become thoroughly established on the islands in open woods and 
pastures. 

Portulaca oleracea, the common purslane of our gardens and culti- 
vated grounds, is now well acclimated on all the islands. This plant 
may be used as a salad when cooked, and is also an excellent food for 
pigs. Since it occurs only in cultivated grounds, it may well be styled 
a nuisance. 

Lejndkim virginicum and Senehiera didyma, common peppergrasses, 
are quite at home everywhere in the islands. 

Mimosa pudica^ our common sensitive plant; Erigeron canadensis^ 
fleabane; and Xanthiuni strumarium, the troublesome cocklebur, 
which springs up after the first rains and dies down in hot dry sum- 
mer, are all in evidence on the islands. 



House Doc. No. 368. 



PLATE XV. 




Fig. 1.— Algaroba Trees iProsopis juliflorai 



> .■*■';"%;'-■ ^"^^fl 




Fig. 2.— Lotus Pond. 



House Doc. No. 3£ 



Plate XVI. 




Fig. 1 .—Royal Poinciana (Poinciana regia). 




Fig. 2.— Mexican Almond or Umbrella Tree .Terminalia catappal 



FLORA OF THE ISLANDS. 47 

Datura stramonium^ Jamestown weed, and Plantago majoi\ the 
large plantain of our garden.s and fields, here attaining enormous 
proportions, with spikes 1^ to 2 feet long, seem to have followed the 
white man everywhere. Besides the above, a very objectional:)le 
grass, first introduced at Hilo in 1840, on the island of Hawaii, and 
hence called locallj' Hilo grass, is rapidly spreading over the islnnds, 
overrunning the pastures and destroying valuable grasses. Its botan- 
ical name is Pasjxdum conjugatum. It is a large, coarse, decuml^ent 
grass, and is found in Louisiana, where conditions are not so favorai)le 
to large and vigorous growth as in Hawaii. It is not eaten by horses, 
mules, cattle, or sheep. It is creating considerable alarm among the 
cattlemen of the islands, who know of no waj^ of checking its prog-ress. 

TREES. 

Prince of all the ornamental trees on the islands is the royal palm 
(see frontispiece), which by its stately straight trunk and graceful 
top gives picturesqueness to nearly ever}- lawn in Honolulu. The 
original tree on the islands now stands in the front j'ard of Mr. Charles 
Gray, of that city. From it have come the seeds which have produced 
the great number now growing at nearly ever}" home. Its botanical 
name is Oreodoxa regia. 

Phoenix dactylifera is the date palm, and it grows quite extensively 
on the islands. 

Traveler's palm, Ravenala madagascariensis^ is a tree more closely 
related to the banana than to the palm, and is cultivated all over the 
islands. It derives its common name from the fact that its leaves when 
tapped will furnish water to the thirsty traveler. (PL VII, fig. 2.) 

Perhaps the most valuable introduced tree on the islands is the 
algaroba. It grows immediately on the seacoast and in situations so 
dry that scarcely any other tree or shrub can live. (PI. XV, fig. 1.) 
It makes a fair shade and bears an enormous quantity of pods filled 
with beans which contain considerable quantities of sugar. These 
beans are highly relished by cattle, horses, sheep, and hogs. They are 
in many instances harvested, dried, and ground into a meal for stock 
feeding. The following analysis is furnished by the Department of 
Agriculture from a sample furnished the writer b}^ Mr. Paul Isenberg 
from his Waialae ranch: 

Analysis of algaroba bean meal. 

Per cent. 

Water 9.59 

Ash 5. 19 

Protein 8. 75 

Fiber 20.33 

Nitrogen, free extract 54. 18 

Fat 1.96 



48 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

The botanical name for this tree is Prosojyi'i juliford. It is of quick 
and easy growth, freely planted in lowlands, and spreads spontane- 
ously. Honeybees are exceedingly fond of the nectar of the flowers 
and the sug-ar of the beans. Many apiaries in algaroba groves produce 
hone}' of attractive appearance and delicious flavor. The parent tree 
from which all in the islands have come still stands near the Roman 
Catholic Cathedral on Fort street, Honolulu. A permanent shade tree, 
attaining a large size and growing a dense foliage, is the samang, or 
monkey pod, known botanically as Pithecolobium samang. It is in 
high favor all over the islands, nearl}^ ever}^ yard or square containing 
one or more trees. Prominent in nearh^ every yard of Honolulu and 
lending a charm and beauty to the tropical scenery of this city is the 
roj^al poinciana, with its large, brilliant red flowers and deep green 
foliage. Its botanical name is Poinciana regia. (PI. XVI, fig. 1.) 

Intermixed with the red and green poinciana may be seen the golden 
shower, with its pendants of j'ellow flowers. It is one of the many 
species of cassia which thrives so well on these islands, its botanical 
name being C. fistula. 

The Morns regia, black mulberry, was earl}' introduced and origi- 
nally cultivated for silkworms, but is now naturalized. 

A number of species of the genus C^esalpinia are cultivated or found 
escaped. Among them may be mentioned the following: C. lyulcKti'- 
rima, pride of Barbados, which has escaped from cultivation. Two 
varieties are recognized, one with yellow, the other with orange-red 
flowers. C. sepiaria is planted in hedges; C. sajypan yields a well- 
known dye, and C. coriarea, a plant rich in tannic acid. 

Schinus rnoUe., the pepper tree, grown so extensively around San 
Francisco, is also cultivated largely on the islands. 

The pride of India, Melia azedarach., is found in all of the islands. 

Ttrminalia cataj^pa (native Kamaui), called Mexican almond, is a 
beautiful shade tree popular in and around Honolulu. (PI. XVI, fig. 2.) 
It bears an almond-shaped fruit inclosed in a very thick hull. 

JBougainvillea sjjectaiilis is a grand shade tree and very justly 
esteemed by all. (PI. XVII, fig. 1.) 

The banyan tree {Ficus hengalensis)., with its numerous trunks or 
roots penetrating the ground from its limbs, is frequently found. (PI. 
XVII, fig. 2.) Several enormous trees are found in Honolulu. Among 
the largest may be mentioned the one in Governor Cleghorn's yard, 
the late home of Princess Kiolani. Several species of eucalyptus are 
grown, constituting the chief trees in the lately -planted forest between 
Punch Bowl and Tantalus. These, according to the island authorities, 
will in time furnish timber for piles, railroad ties, bridges, fence posts, 
telegraph poles, boat building, wagons, wheelwrights' work, and 
agricultural implements. 

Monterey cypress {Cujjressus )/iacrocarjx() is occasionally planted. 



FLOEA OF THE ISLANDS. 



49 



Arbor vitae {TJmja orkntalis) is found growing in the Nuuana Ceme- 
tery in Honolulu. These are the onl}" conifers found by the writer 
growing- on the islands. 

The following list of plants bearing seeds in the neighborhood of 
Honolulu has been kindly furnished by Prof. A. Koebele: 

Plants hearing seeds in the neighborhood of Honolulu. 



Ahrus precatoriiis. 
A leu rites moluccana ( K ukui ) 
Acacia koa. 
A denanthera pavonica. 
Achras sapota. 
Anacardium occidentale. 
Anona chcrimolia. 
Anona muricata. 
Anona squamosa. 
Barringtonia speciosa. 
Bernja ammonilla. 
Bombax ceiba. 
BauMnia sps. 
BLva crellana. 
Bracychiton acerifolium. 
C.rsa Ipin ia. pulch errima. 
Cxsaljnnia sappan. 
Calophyllum inophyllum. 
Carica papaya. 
Casuarina equistifolia. 
Cassia fisttda. 
Co.?si« grandis. 
Cassia nodosa. 
Cinamomum zeylanicum. 
Cinamomum camphora. 
Coffea arabica. 
Cnfca liberica. 



Cordia subcordaia (Koa). 

Croton (about 100 species may be procured 

by cuttings). 
Duranta plumieri. 
Duranta plumieri alba. 
Erioboirya japonica ( Loquat) . 
Eucalyptus citriodora. 

Palms of the Hawaiian Islands. 



Eucalyptus robusta. 

Eugenia jambolana. 

Eugenia malaccensis. 

Eugenia michelii. 

Fourcroya gigantea. 

Gvazuma tomentosa. 

Ch'evillea robusta. 

Hibiscus populnea. 

Mammea americana. 

Macadamia ternifoUa. 

Mangifera indica. 

Melia azedarach (pride of India). 

Murraya exotica. 

Xephelium litchi. 

Xephelium longana. 

Nerium oleander (from seed or cuttings). 

ParJcia africana. 

Persea gratissima. 

Phyllanthus rosea pictus (root cuttings). 

Pithecolobium saman. 

Plumieria (from cuttings). 

Poinciana regia. 

Punica granatum. 

Ricinus communis. 

Sapindus spp. 

Spondias dulcis, 

Schinus inolle. 

Tamanndus indica. 

Tecoma stans. 

Tectonia grandis. 

Terminalia catappa. 

Thevetia neriifolia. 

Saraca indica. 



[Those marked with asterisk (*) bear seeds.] 



^Areca rubra. 

Areca alba 

Areca catechu. 

Areca monostachia. 
*A renga saccharifera. 
*Caryota urens. 

Caryota obtusa. 

Caryota cumingii. 

H. Doc. 368- 



Chamserops excelsa. 
Chamsei-ops humilis. 
Chamserops elongata. 
Chamsedorea elegant. 
''Cocos nucifera. 
Cocas romanzoffiana. 
Cocos plumosa. 
Cocos blumenaria. 



50 



AGKICULTURAL EESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 



Cocos gsertnerii. 

Cocos campestris. 

Cocos bornetUi. 

Cocos australis. 

Cocos flexuosa. 

Coryplia australis. 

Corypha umbraculifera. 

Dxmonerops marginatus. 

Diplothenicum martimum. 
*Eli€is guineensis. 

Hyphscne thebaica. 
*Hyophorbe americaulis. 
*Ken t ia fosteriana. 

Kentia belmoriana. 

Kentia baueri. 

Kentia canterburiana. 

Kentia exhorrhiza. 

Kentia sapida. 
*Latania glaucophylla. 

Latania lodcligesii. 

Latania barbonica. 

Livistonia subglobosa. 

Livistonia rotundifolia. 
* Maximiliana panamensis. 
*Oreodoxa regia. 
*Oreodoxa oleracca. 
*Priichardia gaudichaudii. 
^Pritchardia martii. 
^Pritchardia filifera. 
* Ptycliosperma alexandrse. 



* PJiytelephas macrocarpa. 
*Pha'nix canariensis. 
*Ph anix dactyllfera . 

Phoenix recUnata. 

Phcenix tenuis. 

Phoenix leonensis. 

Phcenix rnbicola. 

Rh apis flabeliforviis. 
*Sabal blackbumiayia. 

Sabal umbraculifera. 
*Sabal adansoni. 

Sabal p>almeto. 

Sagus vitiensis. 
*Thrmax argentea. 

Verschajfeltia splendida. 
*Cycas revoluta. 
*Cycas media. 

Macrozamia denisonii. 

Maa'ozamia miquelii. 

Macrozamia j)lumosa. 

Macrozamia spiralis. 

Macrozamia condllpes. 

Macrozamia cylindrica. 

Macrozamia douglassii. 

Bovenia spectabilis. 

Carludovica planata. 
*Pandanus odoratissimus. 
*Pandanus candelabrum. 

Pandanus utilis. 

Pandanus javanicus. 



MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS AND SHRUBS. 

Of these, some may be classed as weeds, and some as highl}^ useful 
plants. Among the former may be mentioned the Lantana camara^ 
which was introduced in 1859 and soon escaped cultivation. The birds 
scatter the seeds everywhere, with the disastrous result of covering 
every vacant field and lot with a dense growth of this plant. The 
flowers vary in color from light yellow through the reds and into 
purple. 'This plant is frequently grown in hothouses in the South. 
In Hawaii it is a great nuisance. 

Opuntia tuna^ cactus, one of the cochineal feeding species, is found 
growing to a v&vy large size, especially on the lower portions of the 
islands. The fruit is not unpleasant, though difficult to handle on 
account of its prickles. Two kinds are recognized, one bearing white 
and the other red flowers. The leaves of the latter are eaten by cattle 
for the water they contain. 

Canna indica.^ Indian shot, was introduced at an early day and has 
now spread very extensively over the islands. Two varieties occur, 
one with red speckled and the other with yellow flowers. 



House Doc. No. 368. 



Plate XVII. 




Fig. 1.— Bougainvillea ; Royal Palm on Left. 




Fig. 2.— Banyan Tree ^Ficus bengalensis;. 



House Doc. No. 368. 



Plate XVIII. 




Fig. 1 .—Sugar Cane in Bluum. 




Fig. 2.— Sugar Mill, Wailuko. 



FLORA OF THE ISLANDS. 51 

The century plant (Agave americana) may be regarded as thoroug-hly 
naturalized. 

The dill of our gardens {Peucedanum gravoleivs)^ an early introduc- 
tion, has become a common weed. 

Bamhusa vulgaris, the bamboo from China, called by the natives 
Ohe, is used by them onl}- for hshing poles and outriggers for canoes, 
while in other countries it has a wide range in the building and 
furnishing of houses and in the manufacture of tools and other 
articles of trade. It is both cultivated and wild in the low valleys of 
the island of Oahu. 

Of water plants the following ma}^ be mentioned: Nelumhiuin speci- 
osum, the lotus (PI. XV, fig. 2), which is found in ponds in Honolulu, 
and Nadurtiuin officinale^ the common watercress, which fills the water 
courses in the neighborhood of Honolulu and elsewhere, but rarely 
flowers. 

Among useful plants were found: 

B'lxa orellana^ a low tree 10 to 12 feet high which was formerly cul- 
tivated for its red dye obtained from the seed pulp by maceration. It 
is the Arnotto or Kocou tree, which furnishes the oil of arnotto for 
coloring butter. It is thoroughly naturalized on the islands. 

Indigofeixi anil was introduced in 1836 from Java by Dr. Serriere, 
who manufactured a good quality of indigo from it. This plant is 
now preferably cultivated to other species of indigo.. 

Manihot titiltissima^ which is used for making tapioca starch, is both 
cultivated and wild. So, too, with the Japanese wax plant Stillingia 
sebifera. 

Ahrus jjrecatorius^ known as prayer beads, has escaped cultivation 
and is now found wild. Its shining scarlet seed with a black spot at 
base are strung into beads by the natives. 

Night blooming cereus [Cereus triangularis)^ a plant so highly prized 
in hothouse culture in this country and whose blooming becomes a 
neighborhood event of importance, is perfectly at home on the islands. 
It is grown extensivel}' upon stone fences, giving the semblance of an 
evergreen hedge. It blooms every three or four weeks throughout 
the summer. At Oahu College, just outside of Honolulu, is a hedge 
over 200 yards in length on which thousands of blooms occur at one 
time. 

Nicotiana tahacum. — Tobacco has been cultivated by the natives 
from earl}' time. It thrives well and yields a weed of good flavor, but 
excessivel}^ strong. It is said to contain an excess of nicotine. The 
native cigars and tobacco are not of high grade, though perhaps 
improved culture, curing, and fermenting might modify- the tobacco 
into a very acceptable qualit3\ Experiments with Havana and Suma- 
tra varieties by learned experts might demonstrate results different 



52 AGRICULTUKAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

from those heretofore obtained and start a profitable tobacco industry 
on the islands. 

Peanuts {Arachis hypogea) are said to grow to perfection on the 
islands, and yet, strange to record, large quantities are annually 
imported for eating purposes. Some varieties mature in five months, 
thus permitting the growth of two crops a year on the same soil. 
Besides being extensively eaten, the nut yields an oil but little inferior 
to the best olive oil. It is recorded that salads made with this oil 
will keep several days longer than those made with olive oil. Vege- 
table oils are largely displacing animal fats, and since the oil from this 
plant is used for lamp, kitchen, table, and in the manufacture of soap 
and chocolate, there are no valid reasons why an extensive industry 
in the growth of peanuts and manufacture into oil should not spring 
up on the islands in the near future. It is as easy to raise as ordinary 
vegetables, and yields from 20 to 60 bushels of nuts per acre. 

R'tcinus communis^ the castor oil plant, was earl}^ introduced and is 
now common in waste places. It grows well on the islands, and 
numerous successful attempts on a small scale have been made to 
extract an oil from the seed. Mr. C. Koelling has established a plan- 
tation and mill at Kaneohe, Oahii, and has manufactured an oil which 
has been pronounced by local druggists as a good commercial article. 
His first planting of 20 acres in 1898 was not a success. The plants 
came up and grew well, but when they began to bear, all at once they 
wilted and decayed. Better land was selected and fresh plantings 
made with excellent success. The first crop was harvested and manu- 
factured into oil in 1899. He is increasing the area in this plant annu- 
ally. The machinery in the mill is of the most improved kind. He 
is planting an improved variety of beans. 

FIBER PLANTS. 

Sisal hemp {Agave sisalana) is attracting considerable attention on 
the island of Oahu. In the Waianae district, the Hawaiian Fiber 
Company has planted several hundred acres in this plant and will con- 
tinue planting until 1,000 acres are in cultivation, when it will go into 
the manufacturing of fiber. It is expected to yield at least 600 
pounds fiber per acre. The plant can be grown on rocky, barren lands 
unfit for general agriculture, and as there are large areas of these 
lands now worthless which can be utilized for the growth of this plant, 
the outcome of the experiment now being made by the Hawaiian Fiber 
Company is watched with considerable interest by the owners of 
these soils. 

Sansevieria seylanica^ bowstring hemp, has been experimented with 
on the islands, but the results are not known to the writer. It is 
peculiarly adapted to small cultivators. Five acres planted in good 



FLOEA OF THE ISLANDS. 53 

moist land would 3'icld a good livelihood for a small family. It yields 
a crop every year for ten years. Allusion has been made elsewhere 
to the combined culture of this plant with coffee. 

Ramie, described elsewhere, can be grown anywhere in the moist 
regions almost without cultivation, as well as in the arid regions with 
irrigation. It could be grown abundantly and profitably if a machine 
for decorticating its fiber were available. 

Musa textilis^ manila hemp, has alreadj^ been described under the 
head of bananas. 

New Zealand hemp {Phormiwn tenax) has been introduced and culti- 
vated to a limited extent only. So far no definite results have been 
obtained. 

Cotton, either the upland or sea island, could certainly find a con- 
genial home amid such a diversity of climate, altitude, and rainfall. 
If any experiments have been made with this plant, the writer has 
failed to hear of them, but his individual conviction, based upon a 
knowledge of the plant and a study of the conditions prevailing on 
the islands, is that abundant crops of excellent staple could be profit- 
ably grown. 

TANNINS. 

Many of the trees on the islands produce tannic acid in quantitj' to 
justify extraction. When one considers the fact that the hides of 
animals killed on the islands are shipped to other countries for 
tanning into leather and this leather utilized for shoes, harness, etc., 
the question naturally arises, Wh}'^ not tan these hides at home ? It is 
certainly not for the want of tannin. Numerous species of acacia 
furnish tannic acid, conspicuous among which is the black wattle 
{Acacia decurrens)^ whose bark is extremely rich in this ingredient, 
being superior to that of the English oak. The tree grows well on 
the dr}^ ridges, attaining a height of 20 to 25 feet in five years. A 
peculiaritj^ of this plant is to send up shoots from its roots as soon as 
the tree ia cut down. By cutting down the tree and utilizing the bark 
from its stem and limbs, a good firewood is left. Shoots from the 
roots of trees thus removed will in five years reach a size which will 
permit of another cutting. Hence a forest of black wattle will, if 
care be taken, supph' tannin for an indefinite time. With the hides, 
and an abundance of tanning material, there is no reason for exporting 
the raw hides. A large number of these trees are now growing suc- 
cessfully on the dr}" ridges of Mahiki forest near Honolulu. There 
is another species, A. dealbata, which is called silver wattle, that has 
also been planted in the Mahiki forest. Besides furnishing bark for 
tanning, its wood is highh^ esteemed by coopers and carpenters. 
It also has great heating power, and therefore ranks high as fuel. It 
grows faster than any tree on the islands. 



54 AGEICULTUEAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

The carob {Ceratonia siliqua), called also St. John's bread, has 
been successfully introduced and promises future usefulness. It grows 
well in dry soil, and its pods possess much nutriment. In the island 
of Crete over 180,000 tons of these pods are annually exported. A 
large portion of the rocky ridges of the island might be profitably 
planted with this tree. 

COFFEE ( Cqfea ardhica). 

Coffee has become well naturalized in many places on the islands of 
Hawaii, Kauai, Maui, and Oahu. It was first introduced in 1823 by 
Mr. Marin, who established a small plantation on the island of Oahu. 
It was again introduced by Lord Byron in 1825, from Rio Janeiro. 
Its cultivation soon spread over the above-mentioned islands until a 
large number of plantations were established (mainly on Kauai and 
Hawaii) which promised excellent results. But the coffee blight, due 
to a woolly coccus, suddenly made its appearance after the rainless 
winter of 1855 and 1856 and gave a decided check to the expanding 
industry. From the punctures of this insect exuded a sweet gummy 
substance which furnished a nidus for the spores of a black fungus, 
patches of which soon appearing upon the leaf and stem impedes res- 
piration and destroys the vigor of the plant. The rains drive the 
insects in colonies from the plant to its roots under the ground, where 
the}^ remain until dr}" weather, when they are again borne to the leaves 
by a small red ant. 

A few years after the appearance of this insect many plantations 
were cut down and planted in sugar cane. The insect disappeared 
and the blight abated. A fresh impetus was given to the reestablish- 
ment of plantations, which reached fair proportions and were yield- 
ing profitable results until the recent low price of coffee and the com- 
parative high value of sugar suspended further planting and even 
induced many to plow up their coffee bushes and plant their lands in 
sugar cane. The plant is, however, a decided success on the islands, 
the trees attaining early maturity and bearing heavy crops. (PI. XI, 
fig, 1.) Coffee is grown on the four larger islands, but production has 
reached a commercial basis only on Hawaii, where there are four main 
districts, viz. Puna, Olaa, Kona, and Hamakua. It is impossible to 
ascertain the exact acreage now under cultivation or the amount and 
value of the annual crop produced. It is estimated that at least 15,000 
to 20,000 acres are now under cultivation. The coffees consumed on 
the islands are chiefl}^ home grown, and therefore the amount exported 
represents an uncertain part of production. The exports for 1897 
were over 337,158 pounds, valued at $100,000, 

The coffee tree requires about four years to reach maturity and pro- 
duce profitable crops. (PI. XX, fig. 2.) Had not whole acres been 



House Doc. No. 368 



Plate XIX. 




Fig. 1.— Ewa Plantation Pumping Station. 







P 


^ 


f%J 


% 


^^^^ 


^^ 


^J«#l|^v / 


'^I'^^H 




fgft 


^^^^ 




t 


^; '^L 


p 


BW 




9 




I^Hr "'^Pl 


*iH 


"■■y-v ^- , g ..ih.,^„.>.'fe»&jii3 


I^B^M^^S 


1 


W':-< 




* 


^ ^^^kQh^^^H^^^I 



Fig. 2.— Railroad on Ewa Sugar Plantation. 



House Doc. No. 368. 



Plate XX. 




Fig. 1.— Planting Cane. 




Fig. 2.— Coffee Plantation. 



COFFEE. 55 

uprooted and replanted in the more remunerative sugar cane, the total 
crop at present would be larger than that of 1897, since many young 
trees were then not bearing. The crop of 1899 was the largest on 
record, but low prices caused by overproduction have shorn it of 
profit. The industry is in the hands of men from many countries— 
the German, Portuguese, American, English, Chinese, and Japanese. 
Plantations were inaugurated mainly by Anglo-Saxons, but some of 
them have been abandoned for the dominant industry of the islands — 
sugar. The Portuguese and Japanese have occupied some of them and 
are now the chief laborers in the coffee fields. 

Some coffee planters have been and are now successful. Others have 
failed. The causes of failure are lack of capital to carry a plantation 
to the bearing age, and want of experience and intelligence in the cul- 
tivation of this crop.- Just here it may be remarked that coffee under 
proper conditions has never received scientific assistance, and hence 
a most important and worthy field for investigation by the experiment 
station soon to be established on these islands. 

It is asserted that natural conditions of soil, elevation, and climate 
justif}' the prevailing opinion that coffee growing can be made a per- 
manent profitable industr}'^ of the islands. Whether this industry will 
be developed in the future, along large plantation lines as in other 
tropical countries, or upon small farms with other crops, is yet uncer- 
tain. Experience has taught the wisdom of large plantations, enjoy- 
ing a steady supply of labor, and providing the best mechanical devices 
for cleaning and grading. But the cotton, sugar, and rice plantations 
are rapidh' giving way to the cotton, sugar, and rice farms with neigh- 
borhood central gins, mills, and factories owned by corporations of 
capital, which will bu}^ or work the entire products of the farms and 
convert them into merchantable forms. This has been largely accom- 
plished in the cotton, sugar, and rice districts of Louisiana, and I see 
no reason why a similar course can not be pursued in the coffee indus- 
try. In fact, thorough study of the conditions prevailing in Hawaii 
force us to the conclusion that the fullest development of this industry 
can best be obtained by disintegration and division of the prevailing 
large coffee plantations into small farms, each owned and cultivated 
by an intelligent farmer, and with an independent central mill in each 
section to prepare the berries for market, at which the products of 
each farm can be handled, either by direct purchase or a regular charge 
for cleaning and grading. 

Since the altitude for coffee planting begins where sugar cane ceases 
to be profitable, it has been suggested that a combination of the two 
industries might be feasible. The labor required by the latter might 
at times be profitably spared for the former. There are several suc- 
cessful examples of this union which would indicate the truth of this 
suggestion. 



56 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

The coffee of the islands has a marked flavor and aroma, and pure 
Kona is said to be superior in every wa}' to Mocha, or Old Govern- 
ment Java, and selected samples sold abroad have brought prices which 
attest its high quality. It is therefore expedient to establish an intel- 
ligent culture of this berrj^ in order that this deserved reputation may 
be maintained. 

It is not to be understood that enormous areas with large volumes 
of shipments can be had in Hawaii. The lands suitable to coffee cul- 
ture, like those adapted to sugar, are exceedingly restricted in area, 
and hence, at the best, only limited quantities can be produced. But 
the present area and output can be largel}" increased, and it is the part 
of wisdom of the economists of this country to determine how this can 
best be accomplished. 

It is a matter of regret that the interest in' coffee growing has 
greatly decreased in the last few years. The low price of coffee 
everywhere, together with the scant}^ and high value of labor, have 
checked the usual annual plantings, and now attention is paid to the 
bearing trees only. The area under cultivation instead of being 
extended is being decreased rapidly by the transferring of many of 
the Olaa coffee plantations into vast sugar estates. 

When sugar falls in value and coffee returns to its usual price, then 
perhaps another and more permanent impetus will be given this 
industry. The commissioner of agriculture for the islands has I'ecently 
introduced and disseminated over the islands a large number of Libe- 
rian coffee plants, which are said to be blight proof. However, the 
danger of blight is now reduced to a minimum, due to the introduction 
of parasites which have destroyed the insects causing the disease. This 
is one of the many beneficial acts of that devoted scientist, Prof. A. 
Koebele, entomologist of the islands. In the cultivation of coffee a 
large supply of labor is required at picking time, which lasts onlj" 
three to four months. The rest of the year a ver}- small force is 
needed. It is therefore recommended that the coffee farmer should 
also engage in the cultivation of other crops in order to profitabl}" 
utilize the year round the labor required for harvesting the coffee. 
Experiments are being made to combine with coffee the cultivation of 
tea, sisal hemp, bowstring hemp, and other plants. Allusion has 
already been made to the combination of sugar and coffee culture. 

Tea {Tliea chmensis) has been tried and the plants are reported to 
have grown well, making vigorous, well-leaved shrubs. It is hardly 
expected that the unskilled labor of the islands would understand the 
proper curing of its leaves. The writer is not definitely informed as 
to the attempts made to produce a merchantable article. 

Theohroma cacao ^ cacao (chocolate), was introduced by the commis- 
sioner of agriculture in 1894:, from Ceylon, and planted in the gov- 
ernment nurser3\ Several varieties were introduced. Although they 



SUGAR. 57 

grew well, the writer has not heard of any commercial attempt at 
growing this plant, though promises of remunerative employment 
were made to the growers in the moist districts of Hawaii. At the 
same time and in the same wa}^ the following plants were introduced: 
Camphor {Camxjhora offi^diudis), producing camphor gum; {Man! hot 
glaziovii) Para rubber, one of the best rubber-producing trees, and 
adapted to open forests; cardamom spice ^hlettarla cardamomimi)^ 
producing the highest-priced spice and adapted to elevations of 400 to 
2,500 feet, and nutmegs {MyrkUca fragrmis)^ suited to the moist 
climate of Hilo, Puna, and Kona districts of the island of Hawaii. 

SUGAR. 

The dominant crop of Hawaii is sugar. Everj^bod}' is interested in 
it directly or indirectly. It dwarfs and belittles every other agricul- 
tural crop grown upon soils capable of jdelding sugar cane. Every 
attempt hitherto to establish a colony of farmers in one community 
has eventuated in a sugar estate. As long as the present prices of 
sugar are maintained it is extremely doubtful whether farming as 
practiced in the States will ever become permanent or popular on the 
islands. Wherever diversified farming can be carried on, there, per- 
haps, sugar cane can be grown at a greater profit than most an}' other 
crop; and as there are mills in almost every part of the main islands 
which are ready and anxious to buy cane, the farmer is more than apt, 
on account of greater profit, to gradually gravitate to the exclusive 
cultivation of this crop. Few places in the island where cane can be 
grown at all will yield less than 30 to 40 tons per acre. The present 
price of cane per ton is $5 to $6, thus yielding a gross income of 8150 
to §5240 per acre. Even deducting expenses of growing and harvesting, 
there will be left a net income per acre hardly possible to be obtained 
b}' any ordinary farm crop. 

As mentioned elsewhere, large portions of the Olaa cofi^ee planta- 
tions have been transformed into sugar estates since the decline in the 
price of coffee. 

Sugar culture began on the islands over sixty years ago. In 1850 
the product of sugar per acre, with the crude wooden and stone mills 
and inferior kettles, was not over 1 ton per acre. In 1880 the total 
crop of the islands was reported at only 30,000 tons. The sugar 
industry was given a tremendous impetus by the reciprocity treaty 
with the United States in 1875, by which all raw sugars were admitted 
free of dutj'. The industry' moved forward b}" almost "leaps and 
bounds " after the ratification of this treaty. It was seriously depressed 
by the passage of the bill which permitted all raw sugars to hQ 
imported free of duty into the United States and gave a bounty- upon 
domestic sugars. It was claimed by some that under the reciprocity 
treaty the United States ought to have paid the bount}' to the Hawaiian 



58 AGRICULTUEAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

planters. It rallied again upon the removal of the bounty and the 
ree.stabli.shment of a duty. The passage of the Dingley bill was 
extremely fortunate for this industry, since which time it has enjoyed 
a period of unprecedented prosperity. Immense improvements have 
been made, consisting of up-to-date capacious machinery in the sugar 
house, steam plows and harrows in the held, enormous pumping plants 
for irrigation, etc. Annexation, which increased the confidence of 
the public in the future of the industry and gave higher values to 
plantation stock, has also caused a considerable increase in the price 
of labor, the latter being the largest factor which enters into the 
expense of making sugar. Sugar is cultivated on the islands of 
Hawaii, Kauai, Maui, and Oahu, at elevations of from 20 to 2,000 
feet. The table lands surrounding the islands at elevations of from 
20 to 500 feet constitute the chief sugar areas. Nearly every acre 
adapted to cane culture on these four islands is under cultivation, and 
the probability of a much larger extension of the industry is small. 
In the efi'orts to obtain the large profits now incident to sugar culture, 
extensive estates have been recently opened, cultivated, and irrigated. 
An experience of two years has proved that on some estates irrigation 
water is too salty for sugar cane, and hence these estates had to be 
closed, and all prospects of growing sugar thereon abandoned. There 
are about 60 plantations on the islands, which yielded in 1898-99 about 
300,000 tons of sugar. These plantations have about 100,000 acres in 
cane, one-half of which is harvested every year. The ^neld per acre 
varies greatly, according to character of the soil, position of the plan- 
tation on the island, whether in the rainy or rainless belts, etc. Under 
irrigation as much as lOi tons sugar per acre has been the average of 
one plantation. Individual acres have given much higher yields. 
Upon the rainy side of the islands the yields are less, but so are the 
expenses, and the net gains from each do not vary much. The fol- 
lowing, taken from the books of the company, has been kindly fur- 
nished me by ]Mr. Geo. F. Rendon, manager of Ewa Plantation, Oahu: 

Expenses per ton of sugar grown and per acre. 



Plant cane. 



Per ton. Per acre. 



Clearing 

Mule and steam plowing 

Ditches 

Cutting and hauling seed 

Preparing and planting 

Fertilizing 

Watering 

Hoeing and weeding 

Stripping 

Cutting and hauling cane 

Pumping expense 

Sundry accounts (rent, interest, and all other expenses). 

Manufacture 

Containers 



80. 54 S5. 51 

1.41 , 14.50 
.20 ' 2.05 
.80 8.22 
. 88 9. 04 

4.01 41.13 

3.63 37.18 

. 76 7. 85 

1.49 15.25 

3. 48 35. 62 

2. 42 24. 84 
5.33 54.63 
2. 65 27. 15 

. 99 9. 77 



Total. 



28. .59 292. 74 



Planting from August 10 to November 27, 1897. Grinding from February 1 to August 25, 1899. 



House Doc. No. 368. 



Plate XXI. 




Fig. 1.— Screw Pine or "Hala" iPandanus odoratissimus 




Fig. 2.— Hereford Cattle, Lows Ranch. 



House Doc. No 368. 



Plate XXI 




Fig. 1.— Hanalei Valley. 




Fig. 2.— Punch Bowl; Experiment Site in Foreground. 



SUGAR. 59 

Plant cane: 

Total yield of cane tons.. 117,835 

Yield of cane per acre do. . . 78. 9 

Purity of juice per cent. . S7. 07 

Amount of cane required to produce 1 ton of yugar..tons.. 7. 71 

Total production of sugar do. . . 15, 289. 5 

Yield sugar per acre do 10. 24 

Mr. Rendon, in an accompanying letter, says: 

Since these figures were made up, however, you will of course understand that 
wages have materially increased in these islands. To get at present conditions you 
would probably have to add 25 per cent to the figures given in the statement. 

Apropos of the Ewa Plantation, it may be mentioned that it has 
eight enormous pumping plants (PL XIX, fig. 1) costing 11,750,000, 
which supply 75,000,000 gallons per day of irrigation water to the 
fields (about 5,000 acres); 29 miles of railroad track, with necessary 
cars, engines, etc. (PI. XIX, fig. 2); a splendidly equipped sugarhouse, 
and nearly $100,000 invested in farming implements, mainly steam 
plows, harrows, etc. 

On the leeward side of the islands, where irrigation is practiced, the 
land is broken with steam plows to a great depth. Rows are laid off 
at 5-foot intervals with ver}^ deep double-mold-board plows. Into 
these deep furrows the tops of the cane are dropped in a continuous 
row, the soil is drawn in lightly with hoes, and a shallow stream of 
water sent over the buried tops. (PI. XX, fig. 1.) In six to seven 
days a continuous stand of young canes is obtained. For the purpose 
of economizing water the rows are laid off as nearly on a level as pos- 
sible, and an open furrow for irrigating is maintained during growth. 
After each irrigation hoes draw in from the adjoining ridges small 
quantities of soil in order to conserve the moisture applied. Save 
irrigation, and its incident hoe work and the trashing of cane, no other 
cultivation is given. A contract is usually made with a head Chinaman 
to irrigate and trash the cane from planting to harvest at so much per 
ton of cane harvested. The contract is usually for 100 acres, the com- 
pany furnishing the water. Contracts are also made by the ton for 
the cutting and delivery of the cane at the sugarhouse, the company 
furnishing the cars and engines. The breaking of the land and the 
planting of the cane is usually done with hired labor. 

On the rainy or windward side of the islands the conditions require 
entirely different methods from those just described. The lands are 
broken in a similar manner but less deeply, and the tops are planted 
in an open furrow and covered. When the plants are large enough, 
the work of cultivation begins, which is usually done with plows, 
cultivators, and hoes. This cultivation is continued until the canes are 
sufficiently advanced to ''layby." Every operation is similar to the 
best practice in the cornfields of the West. Here reliance is placed 



60 AGEICULTURAL EESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

entirely upon the rainfall for furnishing the needed moisture to canes. 
Sometimes the rainfall is excessive, at others deficient. Severe and 
protracted droughts which occasion great loss to the planters occur 
at rare intervals. As a rule, however, the rainfall is ample for good 
crops, and the extra expense of irrigation is avoided. Hence, fre- 
quently the windward plantations are just as good dividend payers as 
the leeward estates, though the vields per acre are much less. Trashing 
of cane is practised here as on the leeward side. In both instances the 
dead leaves are piled up between the rows, where they remain until after 
harvest, when they" are burned. "Ratooning" or "stubbling" is not 
largel}^ practised. Only first yeav ratoons or stubbles are cultivated. 
Whenever in the judgment of the manager these will not produce 30 
tons of cane per acre, the}^ are plowed up and the land replanted. 
Just here is one of the secrets of the large success attending sugar 
growing on these islands. Two-thirds, if not three-fourths, of the area 
each year is in plant cane. In Cuba, Porto Rico, and other tropical 
islands cane is permitted to run for six to even sixteen years, with the 
unavoidable result of annually diminished acre yields, and a low average 
sugar output. Sugar planters elsewhere are disposed to doubt the 
accuracy of the large published yields of Hawaii. Let them consider 
their own enormous yields from plant cane, and then apply such results 
to their entire plantations before they begin to question outputs obtained 
in these islands. It is true that irrigation upon fresh lands, upon the 
warmer leeward sides, in a climate almost perfect for maximum growth, 
has greatly increased the average output of Hawaii, but the carr5"ing 
of the largest portion of the crop as plant cane, is unquestionably the 
main cause of the large yields. This is evidenced by the yield obtained 
on the rainy or windward side of the islands, which are much larger 
than those obtained in Cuba and other tropical countries, even though 
much below the returns of the irrigated plantations on the lee side of 
the same islands. 

The cane when harvested is delivered to the sugar mills (PI. XVIII, 
fig. 2) by wagons drawn by oxen or mules, by rail, with horses or 
steam, by water flumes sometimes crossing deep gulches, and by trolleys. 
Plantations use either one of the above methods, to suit their peculiar 
environments. 

THE DISTRIBUTION OF VALUABLE PLANTS. 

The commissioner of agriculture for the islands is sending out 
annually from the Botanical Gardens an enormous number of differ- 
ent varieties of plants and trees, covering both the useful and the 
ornamental, to the citizens of the islands. In this way new plants 
are being introduced and tried. 

In the last year the following have been distributed in large numbers: 
Fruits. — Papaia, Carica paj)aya ,' Avocado pear, Persea gratissimaj 



FEUIT AND VEGETABLE GROWING. 61 

sour sop, A)iona muricata; Tahiti vi, Spondias dulels; lime, Citrus 
limetta; pomegranate, Punica granatimi; Java plum, Eugenia jam- 
Ijolana; strawberry guava, Psldium cattleyanum; Sapodilla plum, 
Achras sapota; Granadilla, Pass'i flora alata; and coffee, Cojfea liber lea. 

Palms. — Lata/nia harbonica, L. glaucophylla^ Livlstona rotwndlfo- 
lla, Ptychosperina alexandrke, Seaforthia elegans^ Pritchardla gandl- 
chaudll^ Oreodoxa regia (roj^al palm), Phwnlx ddctylifera (date palm), 
Thrinax argentea^ Sabal Mackburniana, Areca alba, Brahea'filainiien- 
tosa, Areca Tvhra., Elms guinensis, Cocos j'^'Zt^/^iosa, and Ilyophorbe 
americaulis. 

Timber, shade, and ornamental trees. — Eucalyptus, several varie- 
ties; Grevillea robusta; Casuarina, several species; Prosopis dulcis 
(algaroba); Acacia melanoxylon,' Bauhinia, several species; Macada- 
mia ^emZ/bZ?!** (Queensland nut); Coesalpinia hcematoxylon {\ogyfood)\ 
Ciqyressus rnacrocarjya (Monterey cypress); Poinciana regia,' Schinus 
molle (pepper tree); Sterculia acuminata (red-kola nut); Camphora 
officinalis (camphor tree) ; Theobroma cacao (chocolate tree) ; Hibiscus 
vojndneu)^; Cassia fistula (golden shower); Ceratonia siliqua (carob 
bean); Phyllanthus; Thevetia neri folia; and Crotons, several species. 

Yines. — Vanilla, Aristolochia sipho (Dutchman's pipe); Physianthus 
albens (cruel plant); Piper nigrum (black pepper); Clerodendron, and 
Ylang Ylang. 

In addition to the above, plants of the following (new) varieties 
were sent for experimental purposes to responsible persons through- 
out the islands: Olives, mulberries, peach, pear, camphor, pineapple, 
and Para rubber {Hevea braziliensis). 

In 1898 the commissioner of agriculture imported among others the 
following plants: Crotoii tiglium (croton oil plant), Sterculia acuminata 
(kola nut), Garcinia tnangostana (mangosteene), Erythrina lithosperma 
(for coffee shade). 

FHUIT AND VEGETABLE GROWING. 

The following letters from Governor Sanford B. Dole and Mr. Franz 
Buchholtz, of south Kona, Hawaii, give descriptions of the varieties 
of fruit, vegetables, etc., which are grown on the island of Hawaii: 

PuuwAAWAA, Kona, Hawaii, August 12, 1900. 

Dear Mr. Stubbs: While on this island I visited Mr. Buchholtz, a coffee planter 
of the extreme southern part of south Kona. His house is on the government road 
at that place, at an elevation of perhaps 1,500 feet above the sea. His plantation is 
from the road running up the slope. The soil is among broken lava and generally 
washed below the surface of the ground, which is composed almost entirely of 
broken black lava from the size of a walnut to that of an apple or larger. 

Mr. Buchholtz has had scientific training in agriculture in some German institution 
and is always experimenting in fruits, vegetables, and grasses; in fact, he is conduct- 
ing a private experimental station which I deem to be of great importance, and as 



62 AGRICrLTURAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

he keeps careful accounts and records of each expei'iment, his experience is available 
through his courtesy to tlie public. 

I found growing on his place coffee, figs, grapes, frnit trees (of the United States), 
pineapples, cocoa, carob trees (St. John's bread), mango, jiajjaia, water lemon vine, 
and a good variety of roses and other garden flowers. All of these were growing 
vigorously, and the coffee, fig, grape, mango, jjapaia, apple, pineapple, and water 
lemon, were bearing fruit. The plantation is surrounded by native forest. 

At my request Mr. Buchholtz has kindly consented to prepare a statement of his 
experiments for you, which I will forward as soon aa I receive it. In north Kona, 
at the place of Mr. Coerper, also a German, I picked and ate fine apples from his 
trees. He has abundant crops every year, though his trees are as yet young and 
small. 

North and south Kona stretch for 60 miles or more under the lee of the great 
uiountains oi Hawaii, which effectually shut off the trade winds from these districts. 
In place of them they have land breezes at night and sea breezes by day, both of 
which are little more than zephyrs. Sometimes the sea breeze is augmented by an 
eddy of the trade wind, and then blows with more force and from a more northerly 
direction. This region is made up almost entirely of lava flows, some of them very 
ancient, so that considerable soil has formed both from the decomposition of lava 
and the contribution of vegetable growth. The rainfall throughout the year is per- 
haps more evenly distributed than is the case in any other part of the islands. The 
soil is rich and fine. 

For these reasons the Konas are probably the most suitable part of the islands for 
the production of fruit and perhaps tobacco, though the soil may be too rich for the 
production of a good quality of the latter. Tobacco grows wild here as well as in 
other parts of the islands. 

I am now at Mr. Low's ranch house, over 2,700 feet elevation, on the slope of 
Hualalia. The ranch is all lava flows and contains extensive forests of a large 
variety of trees, and produces first-class pasturage of a considerable variety of grasses 
and other herbage. Alfalfa, rye grass, and blue grass have been successfully intro- 
duced and stand cropping. There is no water, and the stock eat enough while the 
dew is on the grass to supply'their wants. At the ranch house and a few hundred 
feet higher up in elevation, Mr. Low has planted a variety of northern fruits, and 
budded oranges and olives. All are doing well — the apples are beginning to bear, 
and also the olives, one variety of the latter being covered with flower buds. Figs 
do well here. 

The native forests on the ranch are dying. The cause is doubtful. I have 
examined with Mr. Low a number of trees. We have found six or seven kinds of 
borers, bugs, and worms in the (dying) trees, but have not found any In healthy, 
growing wood. Whether these pests cause the destruction or only follow on its heels, 
I do not know, but am inclined to the latter theory. I shall try to have Mr. Koebele 
come here and investigate. Mr. Low will prepare a paper, as requested Ijy you, 
which will be forwarded to your address. 

In regard to the subjects of inquiry set forth in your letter of instruction from 
Washington, I would say as to the first point — leaving out the consideration of sugar, 
rice, and coffee — nearly all edible vegetables of good quality can be produced from 
the sea level to over 2,000 feet elevation; some doing better low down and others 
high up. Certain vegetables, like cauliflower and celery, seem to require the cooler 
climate of elevated places. 

Maize grows to perfection from the sea level to over 2,000 feet elevation. The same 
is true of the majority of forage plants. Wheat, oats, and barley do well, but the 
wheat product is of too i>oor quality to compete with imported flour. None of these 
grains are cultivated at the present time, except perhaps in a small way, as forage. 

Hay can be easily raised, but owing to the liability of rain in the localities where 



House Doc. No. 368. 



Plate XXIII, 




FEUIT AND VEGETABLE GROWING. 63 

it can 1)6 grown, it is liable to be spoiled in the curing process. There are some locali- 
ties where it could be safely cured if it could be raised with the assistance of irrigation. 
Irrigation, however, is too valuable in the raising of more profitable crops, such as 
sugar and rice, to allow it to be used in growing hay. Experiments already made 
would justify the belief that nearly all of foreign grasses will do well over a wide 
range of elevation and will stand grazing. 

Of the fruits of temperate climates, it is fairly well established that apples and 
some of the berries will thrive and bear at the right elevations. I do not think that 
this is settled as to other Northern fruits, although pears have been known to produce 
fruit. The peaches that can be successfully produced are an oriental variety, which 
has been cultivated here for fifty years, and the Ceylon peach, which has been brought 
from Florida and cultivated for perhaps ten years. 

It has been found difticult to raise some of the tropical fruits in these islands, 
especially those which belong to such extremely tropical regions as Java, Sumatra, 
and similar localities; yet both the durien and the mangosteen have been produced 
on the island of Kauai, the trees, as I understand producing regular annual crops. 

Native fruits are limited as to kinds. - The banana stands at the head as to impor- 
tance, with several well-marked varieties. It is easily raised and is delicious for 
eating, both raw and cooked. The banana used for export is an exotic, generally 
called the Chinese banana. It bears large bunches on low plants so well provided 
•with roots that neither the weight of the bunch nor high winds will prostrate it. 
whereas the indigenous ^•arietie^ are easily blown over. The Chinese banana ripens 
well if cut green, and is suitable for cooking. 

Except the banana, little has been done in the way of raising fruit for profit. The 
natives in Kona raise quite a quantity of seedling oranges of fine quality, many of 
which are brought to Honolulu and sold. Little attention, however, is paid to the 
cultivation of oranges, and the fact that oranges of such excellent quality are pro- 
duced from trees substantially in a wild state promises well for the future of the 
Hawaiian production of this fruit. 

I am very much interested in the prospect of the establishment of an experiment 
station here. Such an enterprise could not fail to be of vast benefit to the small 
farming interests of this Territory. If such stations were located at places where 
they might be conveniently visited by those interested in the experimental work, the 
results of such work would, it seems to me, better and more forcibly reach those 
whom it is desired to reach than in any other way. Free monthly bulletins would 
be very useful and w^ould reach many who could not often visit the stations. 
Very sincerely, yours, 

Sanford B. Dole. 

BrcHHOLTZ Plantation, Hoopuloa, S. Kona, 

Hawaii, August 28, 1900. 
His Excellency Governor Dole, Honolulu. 

YiT. Governor: There appears to be no limit as to the growth of any vegetables, 
fruit trees, grapes, etc., in this district; all of them do well and a great many bear 
fruit the whole year round. I have grown the following kinds: 

Potatoes, four times in succession on the same piece of land within twelve months, 
at an expense of one-half cent per pound, average. I got two large and two small 
crops, according to the season. 

Cabbage grows the whole year round, appearing to make no difference if planted 
in summer or winter, in spring or autumn. The cabbage grows to an enormous size, 
as big as 2 feet in diameter, and has the quality to ratoon. For a year in succession, 
after the first head is cut off, small heads spring up out of the stump which, although 
not as hard as the first one and of no use for market purposes, make just as fine eat- 
ing. Cauliflower grows in the same manner as cabbage, and ratoons in the same 
way. Kohl-rabi, or turnip-rooted cabbage, once planted may remain growing for a 



64 AGEICULTURAL RESOUECES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

year or longer without becoming stringy or woody. Brussels sprouts grow well, but 
I can not judge how it would do, because when it just started to form the little heads 
my turkeys ate it up, and I had no chance to plant again. Artichokes grow much 
slower than the above-mentioned vegetables, which become eatable within three 
months, whereas artichokes do not develop in less than nine months, but they con- 
tinue to deliver flower heads for four to six months. Parsley, once sown, grows for- 
ever, apparently; mine is now 4 years old. Parsnips may remain in the ground for 
a year or longer Avithout becoming woody, and can be eaten within two months after 
planting. Celery, both the turnip rooted and the blanched, grows well. The latter, 
nowever, is preferable, as it is very nice and crisp all the time, whereas the first is 
liable to become stringy. Celery may also remain in the ground until you wish to 
use it, a year or longer apparently makes no difference, if properly attended to. 
Carrots grow the whole year round, and may also remain in the ground until needed. 

Red beets, the same as above. Lima beans continue to bear and grow for over a 
year; have to be gathered every week after starting to bear. All other kinds of 
beans grow very well, maturing within three months after planting. Turnips grow 
all the year round, and may remain for a long time in the ground, but I am unable 
to tell how many months. Cucumbers grow the whole year round, and, particularly 
the climbing kinds, bear for a long time. Tomatoes grow the whole year round and 
bear, with proper attention, for years. Peas yield very small crops, but grow very 
quickly, and may be planted at different times of the year. Corn can be planted 
with success only once in a year and does not even then yield as good crops here as 
Iq other parts of the country. Onions grow very well, are of a fine quality, and very 
large size; may be planted any time of the year; mature in about six to seven 
months; can be raised at one-half cent per pound. Leeks grow very well; may 
remain for a year in the ground. Radishes become eatable ten days after sowing. 
Eggplants do as well as the rest and bear for a long time. Lettuce can be planted 
any time of the year; it develops very quickly. Peppers grow in profusion and bear 
the whole year round and for many years in succession. Watermelons do not do 
well at this locality (1,650 feet), but no doubt would grow very nicely lower down, 
where it does not rain so much. Muskmelons grow very w^ell, but suffer greatly from 
a little fly. Pumpkins and squashes do very well and sometimes bear for two years. 
The fruit has to be gathered every month. Strawberries bear fruit all the year 
round, of a fine flavor. Raspberries bear fruit during perhaps six months, also of 
a very fine flavor. Gooseberries and currants grow rather slowly, and have so far 
not been in bearing; gooseberries apparently do better than the latter. Two-year-old 
apple trees imported last year from California are in bearing this year and yield 
a fine-flavored, juicy fruit. Pears grow slowly, but apparently well; Avalnuts, the 
same. Olives grow very well. Sweet almonds planted last year were in flower this 
year and do very well. Plums, prunes, cherries, peaches, and apricots planted last 
year did remarkably well, and if it had not been for the drought last winter would 
have been in bearing now, I presume. Oranges and limes grow rather slowly in the 
beginning, but do very well afterwards. Alligator pears grow well. Wine grapes 
bear twice in a year and do very well. Figs bear within a year after planting, and 
bear in abundance during four months every year after. Pineapples start bearing 
eighteen months after planting and bear every year regularly for years to come. 

Sweet herbs, dill, lavender, majoram, sage, thyme, all do well. Peppermint grows 
like a weed. 

Mangoes and papaias grow very well and bear a better-flavored fruit than in other 
places. St. John's bread and Sapodillo plum grow very well. 

Of ornamental and useful trees I have planted the following, all of them growing 
very well: GrevilUa robusta, irgnwood, Jaceranda, date palms, cedar, acacia, kamono, 
bogie, Dracxna draco, calabash tree, rubber vine, cacao, vanilla beans, camphor, 
castor beans. 



LIVE STOCK. f)5 

Coffee and pngar cane grow very well liere. 

Wheat, barley, and oats come to maturity and bear well, but my place is too rocky 
to allow of plowing, and I have only experimented to find out what could be done. 

Alfalfa, burr clover, red clover, white clover, Australian rye grass, orchard grass, 
bmfalo grass, and Kentucky blue grass I have sown, and all of them do well and 
make fine pasture. Australian saltbush I have also tried on the rocks below with 
good success. 

Looking the list over which I have given, it appears that almost everything a man 
may think of will grow in this district. All the mentioned fruits, vegetables, grasses, 
etc., I have grown myself and very successfully here, and anyone who cares to find 
out if I have reported facts may come and have a look himself. 

It is my opinion that with good roads and jaroper transportation facilities tliis 
district of Kona has a great future, but there are a great many drawbacks which 
make progress here very slow. In the first case the very high steamer charges 
make it almost impossible to grow anything profitably, although things grow here 
certainly as luxuriantly and abundantly as anywhere else; second, by the commis- 
sions and profits which the Honolulu middleman insists on making. No one in 
Honolulu is satisfied with a profit of 20 per cent, and they do not work at less than 
100 to 200 per cent. For instance, onions are never bought for less than 4 to 5 cents 
per pound, but the most I was offered was IJ to 2 cents per pound. I had the same 
experience with Lima beans, corn, etc., and I have therefore almost given up raising 
anything except for my own use. 

If the United States Government would assist an interisland steamer line and 
compel it to charge reasonable freight rates this would be a great step in the right 
direction. It would also be necessary to compel the vessels of such a line to arrive 
and depart at stated hours, not as now, where people are compelled to wait for the 
steamer from twelve to twenty-four hours, the loss of time, and in consequence 
money, preventing farmers here from sending things to Honolulu, because all the 
profits they could make would be easily lost through such tremendous loss of their 
time. 

Another thing which would greatly help to develop this district and the country 
generally is the starting of an experiment station, not in Honolulu, however, but 
right here in Kona. An experiment station in Honolulu is all right as far as sugar 
cane and some other tropical products are concerned, but the climate and surround- 
ings of Honolulu are not very well adapted for experiments with any such things as 
I have mentioned in the foregoing list. The small farmer, however, will be com- 
pelled to raise just such things as I have mentioned in this report in order to make 
a living and to develop the country. If farmers could be told authoritatively not 
only what tliey could grow, but at what season and at what expense, I should say it 
would not be so very hard to encourage desirable people to immigrate to Hawaii 
and try their luck here. 

I hope that the little information which I am able to give may be what your 
excellency expected and may prove of some use to someone here and abroad. With 
expressions of my highest esteem, I remain, Mr. Governor, very respectfully, 

Franz Buchholtz. 

LIVE STOCK. 

CATTLE. 

The growing of live stock is one of the profitable industries of the 

islands. Nearly all of the meat consumed on the islands is home 

grown, and the supply available for home consumption has up to the 

present time been equal to the demand. It is estimated that there are 

H. Doc. 368 5 



66 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

about 120,000 head of cattle on the islands, distributed, according to 
Mr. E. B. Low, as follows: 

Island of Hawaii. — Mr. Samuel Parker has the largest cattle ranch on the island, 
400,000 acres, which are grazed by 25,000 cattle. Cattle are inferior; no effort to 
improve them. 

Puuwaawaa Ranch, Kohala, owned by Hind and Low, has 52,000 acres, with 4,000 
head of cattle. Grading up herd with Shorthorns, Herefords (PI. XXI, fig. 2), and 
a few Holsteins; prefer Herefords; will "eat water" like native cattle (see p. 70). 

Kukaiau Planting Company, or Horner Ranch, 40,000 acre.s, 5,000 head of fine 
cattle — Hereford, Shorthorn, and Holstein. Supplies Hilo with butter. 

Mr. W. H. Shipman has a ranch of 35,000 acres, with 4,000 head of cattle. The 
cattle are medium in quality, but are being improved by the introduction of Here- 
fords. His ranch is on the windward side of the island. 

Kahua Ranch has 17,000 acres, and 4,000 head of common cattle, and is on the 
leeward side. 

Puuhue Ranch has 25,000 acres, with 4,000 head of medium cattle. It is on the 
leeward side. 

Puakea Ranch has 7,000 acres, with 1,500 head of fair cattle, which are being 
improved with pure-bred bulls. It is on the leeward side. 

John A. McGuire has a ranch of 25,000 acres, with 4,500 head of good cattle, on the 
lee side. They are being improved by the use of imported bulls. Mr. J. D. Paris 
has 20,000 acres and 2,500 head of good cattle on his ranch, on the lee side of the 
island. Col. S. Norris's ranch occupies both sides of the island and contains 180,000 
acres, with 7,000 head of medium cattle. Hutchinson Plantation Company has 8,000 
acres, with 1,500 head of good cattle, on the windward side of the island. Kapapala 
Ranch, on the windward side, next to the volcano, has 60,000 acres, with 5,000 head 
of medium cattle. Mr. O. T. Shipman, on the same side of the island, has 5,000 
acres, with 1,000 head of cattle 

Besides the above there are two or three natives with about 2,500 head on leased 
lands, giving a total for the island of Hawaii of about 74,000 head, on about 900,000 
acres of land. 

Island of Oahu. — Mr. Samuel O. Damon has a ranch on both sides of the island of 
25,000 acres, with 3,000 head of good cattle, which are being improved by Angus 
bulls. Mr. J. J. Doussett has a ranch on lee side of 50,000 acres and 7,000 head of 
good cattle, also improved by Angus bulls. Oahu Rail and Land Company has 7,000 
head of good cattle, improved by Shorthorn bulls, on 75,000 acres. 

Besides the above, there are several small ranches containing in the aggregate al)out 
3,000 head of medium cattle, making for this island about 20,000 head. 

Island of Maui. — W. H. Cornwell has a ranch on lee side with 2,500 head of cattle. 
No improved- bulls. Haleakala Ranch, on both sides of the island, has 3,500 head 
of medium cattle. Alupalakua Ranch, on the lee side, has 2,500 head of indifferent 
cattle. A. Enos & Co., of Kahikinui Ranch, has 5,000 head of good native cattle. 
No improved l)ulls. Smaller ranches have an aggregate of about 1,500 head. 

Mand of Kauai.— Mr. W. H. Rice has a ranch with 2,500 head of cattle, and other 
small herdsmen aggregate as many more, or 5,000 for the island. 

Island of Molokai. — Molokai Ranch, owned by the American Sugar Company, has 
4,000 head of inferior cattle, but has 40 pure-bred Hereford and Shorthorn bulls. 
The smaller ranches will aggregate 1,500 more, making a total for this island of about 
5,500 head. 

Island of Lauai. — Lanai Ranch has 1,000 head of medium cattle. 

Island of Niihnu.—On this island are 400 to 500 improved Shorthorn cattle belong- 
ing to Gay & Robinson. 



House Doc. No. 368. 



Plate XXIV. 



156 00 ' 




J.MAN2 ENQRAVINQ CO., CHICAGQ 



156° 00' 



House Doc. No. 368. 



Plate XXIV. 




LIVE STOCK. 67 

This is seemingly a small quantity for the pi-esent population of 
HaAvaii (154,000). Formerly cattle were so numerous in proportion 
to the population that manj^ were slaughtered for their hides and tal- 
low. To-day the demand is so great that dressed carcasses are selling 
to the slaughterhouse corporation at 12 cents per pound. The meat- 
eating population has increased, and the areas devoted to grazing con- 
siderably diminished. The plantation demands are furnished by their 
immediate localities. Frec|uently a plantation will raise its own cattle 
on lands unlit for sugar growing, and thus supplj' its hands with meat. 

Honolulu draws its suppl}' from the other islands. The large 
ranches prevailing on every island, after supplying local demands, ship 
their surplus to this market. It will thus be seen that Honolulu is 
served last and, as the supply of cattle is not keeping pace with the 
increasing demand for meat, the time is not far distant when this city 
will have to import its beef. The quality of the beef sold in Honolulu 
is not first class, nor is the quantity abundant, as the price paid for it 
will show. Formerl}^ excellent beef was brought in cold storage from 
New Zealand, but the trade was discontinued upon annexation on 
account of the duty of 2 cents per pound collected. 

The following number of cattle, calves, and sheep has been slaugh- 
tered in the city of Honolulu from 1895 to 1899: ^ 





1895. 


1896. 


1897. 


1898. 


1899. 


Cattle 


7,681 
1, 551 
7,596 


7,373 
1,570 
7,473 


8,225 
1,852 
8,316 


9,115 

1,815 

10,698 


8,657 

1,528 

13,220 


Calves 


Sheep 





It will be seen that the number of cattle, including calves, slaugh- 
tered has not increased very much in the last five years, while the 
sheep show decided gains. 

The average weight of the dressed carcasses for 1899, as shown by 
the books of the slaughterhouse, was 420 pounds, showing the size of 
the beeves. Through the courtesy of Dr. William T. Monsarrat, vet- 
erinarian for the city of Honolulu, the writer several times visited the 
slaughterhouse and inspected the animals killed. They were only 
fairly fattened and were common island cattle and sheep. 

Diseases. — Upon investigatit)n it was found that Texas fever, so com- 
mon in the South, was unknown on the islands. I also learned from 
Dr. Koebele, the entomologist, that the cattle tick {BoojjMIus hovls) 
had not yet found a lodgment upon an}" of the islands. It would, 
therefore, be well to extend the quarantine restrictions now prevail- 
ing in the United States with regard to the movement of cattle from 
the infected to the noninfected districts to these islands at once, to 

^ Information furnished by Mr. Eben Low. 



68 AGKICULTUKAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

prevent the introduction of the cattle tick. It is possible that the lat- 
ter when once introduced maj^ find most suitable conditions for rapid 
multiplication, and doing so destroy many of the cattle of the islands. 

Upon investigation it was learned that both tuberculosis and liver 
fluke were common among the cattle on the islands of Oahu and Kauai, 
rare on the island of Maui, with very few cases of the former and 
none of the latter on Hawaii and the other islands. Efforts were being 
made to eradicate the tuberculosis from the dairy herds around Hono- 
lulu, using tuberculin as the diagnostic agent. 

Quite an effort is being made, as the above list of ranches will show, 
to introduce better beef blood on the islands. Heref ords, Shorthorns, 
and Angus have all been tried. Thej^ have been brought mainly from 
New Zealand. Preference seems to have been bestowed upon the 
Heref ords, as adapting themselves more quickly to the prevailing ranch 
conditions of the islands. Mr. Low informs me that he imported 
about forty bulls of the Shorthorn and Hereford breeds, and upon 
arrival turned them on his ranch with his native cattle. In a few days 
it was found that the Herefords had acquired the habit of the natives 
of "eating" water, and Avere doing well, while the Shorthorns had to 
be removed to lower altitudes and furnished with water to save their 
lives. 

There is great room for the further improvement of the island 
cattle, and there should be profit in fattening improved grades for the 
shambles of Honolulu. As a rule, cattle are raised on ranches to an 
elevation of 4,000 feet; beyond this, sheep are more profitable; wild 
cattle, however, range much higher up. 

DAIRIES. 

There are but few dairies on the island except those that directly 
supply the markets of Honolulu and Hilo. Nearl}^ all of the butter 
used on the islands is imported, and the prices of both milk and butter 
are high. 

In and around Honolulu are many dairies which supply the city 
with milk. There is a central association, the stock of which is owned 
by the dairies, which buys all of the milk of the dairies and then 
retails it to the city. This association pays the dairyman Ti cents, and 
retails it to the consumer at 12 cents per quart. Butter sells readily 
at 60 cents per pound. These dairies largely grow sorghum, guinea 
grass, alfalfa, etc., for soiling their cows. The}' gather the algaroba 
bean and, grinding it to a meal, feed it with wheat bran or cotton- 
seed meal. Wheat bran and algaroba meal, properly compounded, 
supplemented with green sorghum, constitute a most excellent ration 
for milch cows. 

In the dairies adjoining Honolulu may be found some excellent 



LIVE STOCK. 69 

Jerseys. Mr. William G. Irwin, one of the wealthiest citizens of 
Honolulu, has a herd of improved Jerseys that would be highly prized 
in a,ny countr3^ 

SHEEP. 

Sheep occupy mainly the smaller islands of the group, though the 
largest island, Hawaii, has two enormous flocks, one of 30,000, owned 
by Hon. Samuel Parker, and another of 25,000, owned by the Keamoku 
Sheep Ranch. 

The island of Kahoolawe, as previously noted, is one large sheep 
ran'^h, having over 15,000 head. Besides the sheep, there are a few 
mules. 

Lanai has 30,000 head of sheep, besides the 1,000 head of cattle 
previously given. 

Molokai has about 1,000 head, while Niihau has over 30,000 head of 
grade merinos, the propert}^ of Messrs. Gay & Robinson, whose herd 
of grade Shorthorns has alread}' been noted. The other islands are 
reported without sheep. 

With the exception of the merino flock just mentioned, no effort at 
improving the native sheep has been made. The average weight of 
the dressed carcasses of the sheep slaughtered in Honolulu is not far 
from 40 pounds, as was tested in the presence of the writer during the 
month of August. However, such carcasses bring 12 cents per pound, 
which, together with hide and tallow, gave a value to sheep beyond 
that obtained ordinarily for the best grade mutton in the Chicago 
markets 

HORSES AND MULES. 

There is a small interest in the raising of horses and mules, the lat- 
ter being an adjunct to cattle or sheep ranches. The large demand of 
the plantations for the latter, and the city of Honolulu for the former 
is almost exclusively met by importation, chiefly from the United States. 
However, it is pleasant to record the fact that the Kukaiau Ranch is 
raising improved blooded horses, both of the trotting and running- 
strain. It has colts of Electioneer and Idylwild in the stud. It is 
also raising fine, large mules. 

HOGS. 

Very few hogs are raised on the islands, though the number con- 
sumed is very large. They are imported in vessel loads directly from 
the United States. The Chinese are extremeh^ fond of pork, and their 
demand for this meat maintains an active trade with high prices for 
hogs. The cargo which arrived in Honolulu in August sold readily at 
10 cents per pound on the hoof. 

Conditions on the islands are not favorable to the profitable growing 
of hogs on a large scale, yet there seems to be room for the house 



70 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

or lot pig, which can be used to "turn an honest penny" into the 
exchequer of the small farmer. 

PASTURES. 

Elsewhere allusion has been made to the native plants which furnish 
the food of the pastures. Pili grass {HeterojJogon contortuH) is found 
from sea level to elevations of 4,500 feet. It has been mentioned as 
good for cattle and sheep, and is usually abundant on all ranches. 

The Ti plant ( CordyJine terminalis)^ of which so many uses have been 
recorded, is good for cattle and said to be fattening. Horses do not 
care for it. It is found covering thousands of acres of the lands 
devoted to pastures. 

Bermuda grass {Cynodrm dactyloii), called by the natives Manienie, 
is found on lower plains, but is not esteemed as a very fattening food. 
It and other valuable grasses are being crowded out by the Hilo grass 
{Paspalum. conjugatum)^ which is not eaten by animals. 

Spanish clover {Desmodium uncinatuni) is considered the linest 
feed of the pasture and is highly relished by stock of all kinds. 

Pualele {Sonckus oleracem), a species of sow thistle, is highly 
esteemed in every pasture. It grows to a height of 5 to 6 feet. It is 
an erect annual, coming out in February and grows to July, and 
extends from the low plains to the mountain tops. It is considered 
very fattening. It is sometimes called California milkweed. 

Kukai puaa {Panlcmn prurietvs) is a broad leaf grass of the lower 
and middle regions of all the islands. It grows the year round and 
furnishes excellent grazing. 

There is an introduced grass, common in the pastures of Hawaii, 
which is esteemed of the best quality, and is called Dr. Trousseau's 
grass. The botanical name is not known. 

The aoove constitute the native plants of the pastures, but in the 
cultivated paddocks or inclosed ranches alfalfa and perennial rye grass 
are grown at and above elevations of 2,000 feet. Below this elevation 
it is too dry for their growth. Kentucky blue grass, tried at the same 
elevation, has succeeded. It is estimated by cattlemen that in a ranch 
at an elevation of 2,000 to 6,000 feet, 6 acres are required for a cow 
weighing 1,000 pounds. As before remarked, at this elevation there 
are no running streams, the rain, which is abundant, penetrating the 
earth as fast as it falls. The cattle, therefore, eat rather than drink 
water, getting their supply entirely from the plants wet with dew and 
rain. 

IRRIGATION. 

Mention has been made of the systems of growing cane on the wind- 
ward and leeward sides of the island. It was stated in a general way 
that the crops grown on the windward sides received the needed mois- 



Houie Doc. No 368. 



ir)(i° 00 



HAWAII 

FROM THE LATEST SURVEYS 

PREPARED FOR 

FINNEY'S HAWAIIAN DIRECTORY. 

1896-97 




. . IRRIGATION. 71 

ture from raiufalls, while those on the leeward side were irrigated from 
artesian Avells. The last assertion is correct in every way, but the first 
needs slight modification. 

Sometimes on the windward side the rainfall may not be adequate 
for the maximum production of crops, and the deficiency is supplied 
by irrigation. The water supply for irrigation is not drawn from 
artesian reservoirs, but is taken from running streams and delivered 
to the soil through canals. This latter system is prevalent in Cali- 
fornia and other Western States. 

On the windward side the large rainfalls prevail, giving streams 
which flow down the sides of the mountains, carrj'ing washings of soils 
and forming deltas where they enter the sea. These alluvial valleys 
constitute the chief cultivable lands of the windward side. Sometimes 
immense storage basins or reservoirs are constructed which are filled 
during the rainj^ season and exhausted for irrigation purposes, as the 
crop requires extra moisture during growth. 

There are many estates on Hawaii and several on Maui where the 
rainfall was formerly abundant for all crop purposes, but in recent 
years droughts have prevailed which have entailed severe losses. 
These droughts have been attributed directly to the rapid deforestation 
going on around them. In 1892-93 the districts of Hamakua and 
Kohala, on Hawaii, suffered severely from the protracted droughts, 
the springs and natural reservoirs in the gulches dried up, and water 
for animals and domestic uses was difficult to procure. In some 
instances it had to be shipped from Honolulu in barrels. The cause 
of these droughts is accredited by all of the residents of these dis- 
tricts to the unrestricted roaming of cattle in the forests, by which 
tens of thousands of acres of land, formerly a dense forest, are now 
reduced to a barren desert, useless alike to the grazier and planter. 

In another chapter is given a discussion of the relations of water 
supph" to forest growths. Allusion is made to the above in order to 
emphasize the fact that whether crops are watered directly by rainfall 
or bj" irrigation from either surface streams or underground artesian 
reservoirs, the supply comes from rainfall and the amount of the latter 
appears to be directh' related to the forest growth. 

On the island of Hawaii most of the cane is grown without irriga- 
tion, and though the crops are smaller than in the irrigated districts, 
yet the profits are said to be equallj" as great. 

Irrigation is an enormous additional cost to the expense of growing 
crops. The cost of an irrigation outfit is very large. At Ewa the 
eight pumping plants, capable of supplying 75,000,000 gallons per day, 
have cost $1,750,000. They draw entirely from artesian wells. This 
plantation is situated below the altitude of 200 feet, and has to lift its 
water 50 to 160 feet. It has now 5,000 or more acres in cane, and con- 
templates increasing this area. Roughly speaking, 1,000,000 gallons 



72 AGEICULTURAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

of water is required for each 100 acres in cane. Of course this amount 
varies with the soil, exposure, and rainfall. In the expenses for 
1898-99, given elsewhere for this plantation, it will be seen that the 
expense for pumping per acre was $24.84, and for watering the cane, 
w'hich was performed by contract, 1^37.18; for ditches, $2.05; or a total 
due to irrigation of $64.07 per acre. Upon the 5.000 acres now under 
cultivation this will give $325,350 as the total cost of irrigation for the 
present year. Coal was worth in Hawaii in August last $7.50 to $10 
a ton, slightly higher than before annexation. It comes from New 
Zealand, and now pa3'^s a tariff of 66 cents per ton, when formerly it 
was admitted free. It should be mentioned, however, that Ewa Plan- 
tation has a comparativel}^ low lift. 

Stimulated by Ewa's success, other plantations have embarked in 
similar enterprises with higher lifts. Their success has yet to be 
proven. The prices of sugar, coal, machinery, etc., must always 
determine the line which will be the limit at which pumping can be 
performed at a profit. The depth of artesian water below the surface 
at various points can be determined only by trial. In Honolulu the 
best water-bearing strata are reached at depths of 400 to 500 feet, and 
the water rises 30 feet above the sea level. It formerly rose about 40 
feet. At Ewa it rises 20 feet, necessitating a lift of 50 to 160 feet. 
East of Honolulu it barely rises to the sea level. The hj^drostatic 
level of artesian wells varies with rainfall and the amounts pumped 
out. No geological survey has yet been made by which the exact 
depths of these artesian basins can be told in any locality. Hence, 
trials at great expense are necessary before any important enterprise 
involving a large use of water can be successfuU}" projected in any 
locality". 

The quantitv of water used in irrigation per acre is here alwaj's too 
large. Excessive irrigation is sometimes as destructive to plant growth 
as an absence of moisture. Pumping water from great depths with 
costly machinery, using high-priced coal, involves such a heavy expend- 
iture of money as to require special study of the econom}^ of its use. 
Dr. Maxwell has shown that 800 to 900 pounds of water to 1 pound of 
sugar grown is ample. He also asserts that many plantations are using 
twice, thrice, and even up to seven times this quantity. Mr. Rendon, 
of Ewa Plantation, informed the writer that upon a field of 100 acres 
he had, in accordance with Dr. Maxwell's suggestion, lowered the 
quantity of water used one-half, with apparently beneficial results. 
The wasteful manner in which this high-priced irrigation water is used 
calls for special study in soil physics. Ever}" soil should be irrigated 
just in proportion to its capacity to hold and evaporate water. By 
such a knowledge just the amount of water can be applied which will 
insure continuous nitrification, and with it an abundant suppl}' of one 
of the chief foods of the cane plant. 



FORESTS. 73 

FORESTS. 

Originally forests covered the upland plateaus and mountain slopes 
of all the islands. In them were to be found the finest timbers and the 
best of fuel. The early trade in sandalwood began the destructive 
process which has been continued, until to-day large areas formerly 
clothed with forest cover are bare and devoid of any kind of growth. 
Again, large ranches, upon which roam numbers of cattle, sheep, and 
goats, exist above the altitudes at and below which the sugar estates 
are established. The animals have trampled down the undergrowth 
and destroyed the bushes protecting the roots and trunks of the trees 
which made up the superb forests. Thus exposed, these trees have 
died, and soon after death are found filled with insects which hasten 
their complete destruction. 

Through indiscriminate and wholesale removal of timber by man 
and the destructive influences of mountain cattle and fires, much of the 
original forests covering the mountain slopes have been removed and 
large areas of naked, bare soils or rocks remain. For j^ears the more 
thoughtful students of the islands* prosperity have inveighed against 
this wholesale destruction. Thej'^ have shown the intimate relations 
of forests with rainfall. They have demonstrated how essential to 
ever}" industry on the islands was an abundant water supply. Not 
only the farms and plantations on the windward sides of the islands 
require regular rainfalls, to make profitable crops, but those rice and 
sugar estates on the lee side which depend upon an elaborate and costly 
system of irrigation for their water supply, must have an abundance 
of rainfall elsewhere on the islands to fill the artesian reservoirs from 
which they pump. Human life on the island is dependent upon the 
continuation of the usual rainfall. The city of Honolulu, with a popu- 
lation of 40,000, through its thoughtful guardians, have demonstrated 
the necessity of providing against a future contingency of diminished 
water supply. It has reclothed at a large expense the mountain slopes 
in its rear and has placed sentinels thereon to protect these artificial 
forests against marauders, roaming cattle, and fire. At the same time 
it has constructed immense reservoirs in the mountains to catch the 
winter rain, to supplement, in case of necessity, the numerous artesian 
wells within her corporate limits. How to maintain an abundance of 
water for all of the present and prospective wants of the islands is 
to-day one of the most important questions in Hawaii. It is claimed 
that the cool forests wring from the northeast trade winds blowing 
continuously- over the islands much of the moisture which they con- 
tain and precipitate it as rain. It is also claimed that the thick under- 
growth and brush aid in conserving this moisture, sending it downward 
into the artesian reservoirs within and beneath the mountains rather 
than permitting it to discharge precipitously down the sides of the 



74 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

mountains to the sea. Conceding these claims to be true, the question 
arises: What shall be done to check the diminishing rainfall and insure 
the islands an al)undant water supply for the future? Everj^body is 
interested in this question. So great is the public interest in this mat- 
ter that the governor has requested the secretary of agriculture to 
send a trained forester as soon as possible to the islands to study the 
situation and recommend definite lines of policy to be pursued. It is, 
however, apparent to everyone that the reckless roaming of cattle 
through the forests, destroying directly the undergrowth and brush 
and ultimately the trees, must stop. The appended report of Prof. 
A. Koebele to the commissioner of agriculture, recently made, shows 
the absolute necessity for immediate and prompt action along this line. 
Such action will stay further destruction of the present forests. 

But shall the forests already destroyed be restored? Individual 
efforts on a small scale have resulted favorably to the localities where 
they were tried. The city of Honolulu is greatly benefited by the 
restoration of the Makiki forest. These serve as object lessons for 
future guidance. But local efforts fail to benefit the entire island. A 
S3^stematic plan of reforestation of all the islands, made by expert 
foresters after careful survey and study of the islands, to be executed 
by the Territorial government, is, in the opinion of many, impera- 
tively demanded. Hawaii must enact wholesome laws relating to 
forests for her future preservation and prosperity. 

The following report was recently made to' Hon. Wray Taylor, com- 
missioner of agriculture for the Territory, by Prof. A. Koebele, the 
Territorial entomologist. 

Mr. Low is the owner of a ranch, a part of which is covered with 
forest. Recently the trees in his forests have been dying very rapidh^, 
and he was disposed to assign as a cause the depredations of insects. 
The investigations of Professor Koebele clearly show the true enemies 
to the growing forests, and his suggestions must be heeded else fifty 
years more may find much of the island uninhabited and uninhabitable. 

Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii, 

September 12, WOO. 
Wray Taylor, Esq., 

Commissioner of Agriculture and Forestry. 

Sir: As requested by you, I have made a trip to Mr. E. P. Low's ranch at Puuwaa- 
waa, Hawaii, to look into and report on the depredation of insects on the forest trees. 

Within the last year or so Icerya purchasi has been very destructive to some of the 
trees, and chiefly to the Mamani {f<oi:>hora chrysophylla) , but at the present time this 
destructive scale insect has practically disappeared. Its formidable enemy, the 
Vedalia cardinalis, was found in full force. Owing to the isolated appearance of 
Icerya, often miles apart, this pest has at times become numerous, as has been the 
case in times gone by at Kona, Kohala, and at Hamakua. 

At the present time the insect was noticed all along the road from Kailua to Puu- 
waawaa, yet only in single, individual, or small colonies, showing that the Vedalia 
is present throughout this district. The more the Icerya becomes disseminated, the 
less is the danger of its becoming a pest, as its enemy will follow wherever it appears. 



jse Doc. No. 368. 



Plate XXVI. 




House Doc. No. 368. 




FOEESTS. 75 

Of other insects, two species of Lecanium were found present in nnmbers. L. 
nignun is the most numerous, attacking a great variety of trees and shrubs, yet it is 
badly parasitized by Chalcid flies. Specimens were found upon a mulberry tree, 
nearly every single individual destroyed by the Chalcid flies. 

In addition to the parasites, two fungus diseases are present, as all over the islands, 
having been introduced some six years since. It is owing to the Avant of sufficient 
moisture that these do not develop sufficiently in the Puuwaawaa district. A few 
days of rain and cloudy weather will immediately spread the deathly disease among 
them. L. longulum was found also well represented, and as the foregoing, it has 
sufficient enemies to keep it in check. 

l*nlcinaria psidii, at one time threatening the coffee industry of the islands, is 
present here and there, yet always accompanied 1)y its enemy, the CryptoUviims mon- 
trouzirri, which will make it impossible for the Pulvinaria to ever again become a 
destructive pest. When in China last spring we collected and successfully introduced 
to the islands additional enemies for this scale. One of these, a Chalcid fiy, destroying 
the insect in its earliest stages, is of great value. 

One or two species of Aspidiotus are spread throughout the district upon wild and 
cultivated trees, preyed upon by internal parasites. Nowhere has this insect been 
seen to do any noticeable injury to plant life, except upon a couple of cultivated 
trees, which, with a little attention given to the same, can easily be avoided. More- 
over, we shall forward additional parasites and predaceous insects to this locality. 

Dactylojrius cerlfrrvfi, the common tropical mealy bug, formerly so numerous in 
Honolulu, was found to infest some of the Wiliwili {Erythrina nionosperma); here also 
the Cryptoltemus beetle was found to be present and devouring the same. 

All of the above insects are of foreign origin, and without the assistance of the 
introduced predaceous and parasitic insects they would be detrimental to plant life. 

It is different with the various indigenous forms of insects preying upon forest 
trees. All these have their parasites, and are in consequence hardly detrimental to 
the particular trees they prey upon, since most of them have existed for thousands 
of years. 

According to the observations of Mr. Perkins the larva of Scotorhythra idolias, a 
spanworm found on all the islands, almost annually denudes the Koa trees of their 
leaves; doubtless these conditions have not always existed. In former times the Koa 
trees have had a dense underbrush consisting of various young trees, and especially 
ferns, keeping the ground and the base of the trees continually moist. The Scoto- 
rhythra larvae in pupating come down to the ground; then it is that most of them are 
destroyed by a fungus disease indigenous to these islands, which requires moisture 
for its development; the same disease was successfully made use of against the dep- 
redations of the Japanese beetle. Since the total destruction of undergrowth in 
the Koa forests, and the even drying up of the ground, this disease is becoming less 
effectual and naturally the insect more numerous. It is but for a few weeks that the 
worms are numerous enough to defoliate the trees; 'very soon the new leaves reap- 
pear again and no trace of the worms is noticed, this only appearing periodically. 
As to the natural enemies of this Geometrid larva very little is known; we have no 
opportunity of breeding the same. Of the very numerous specimens of various 
indigenous species some doubtless will prey upon them. 

The Asiatic ('halts ohscurata, which is doing such splendid work on this island, 
where it has just been introduced, has not been met with, as yet, in large numbers. 
On Kauai, where this insect was introduced some five years ago, it has liecome very 
common. 

The seeds of the Koa trees are destroyed to some extent by the larvje of a Tortricid, 
apparently a species of Carpocapsa, and, as Mr. Perkins informs me, it is represented 
on all the islands. We are breeding the same at present from a lot of seeds of ^lamani 
(Sophora chrysophylla) , brought down from Puuwaawaa. Judging from Jtie large 



76 AGRICULTTTKAL EESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

quantities of parasites issuing, these larvae are never so numerous as to destroy all the 
Koa seeds. Perhaps more numerous is a weevil, of foreign origin, represented on 
all the islands wherever the Koa tree is growing, upon the seeds of which it breeds. 
This is not the only tree upon which it is found, but the seeds of most of the acacias, 
and especially those of Prosopis dulcis, are destroyed by this Bruchus. Nevertheless, 
any part of a Koa forest fenced off, or entirely undisturbed, will soon reproduce large 
quantities of young trees of this valuable timber, as can be seen at Lihue, Kauai. 

Wha't is most apparent throughout the dying forests are the numerous small holes 
seen on some of the trees, in an unhealthy condition. It is supposed that the 
insects producing the same are the cause of the ultimate decay of the trees, which 
is by no means the case. In any undisturbed forest such signs are indeed a rarity, 
save perhaps on the Naeo {Myoporum sandwicense) , which practically has these holes 
during the entire time of its existence, with but little detriment to the plant itself. 
If by any cause, natural or otherwise, a tree becomes injured, a branch blown off, 
etc. , the first insects to appear are the indigenous Cerambycidae, which produce the 
holes referred to. As a fact, it is the greatest help to a collector of these insects to 
cut down one of the particular trees, upon which the desired beetle feeds; in a few 
days they will appear in large numbers ready to deposit their eggs. 

I will now refer to the more common and well known form of these Cerambycids, 
and the respective trees upon which they breed. It must be borne in mind, however, 
that the insects referred to will never attack trees in a perfectly healthy condition. A 
peculiarity of these insects is their habit; instead of being nocturnal, they are active 
during the hottest part of the day, from 10 a. m. to 3 p. m., when the sun is highest. 

Plagithmysus varians is found upon the Koa tree on Hawaii, where it breeds both 
in the trunks and larger limbs, as do the rest of the genus. P. pidverulentus and 
P. cristatus are found upon the same tree on Oahu. On Kauai two other species are 
found upon the same tree; these are P. iequalis and P. arachnipes. 

Four species are known to breed upon the Mamani {Sophora chrysophylla) . Of 
these, two are found on Hawaii, P. danvinianus and P. Uackburnii. The first was 
found very common at Puuwaawaa, where the tree is numerous as yet. P. funebris 
is found on Maui, and P. hilineatus on this tree on Kauai. 

The large genus of Alani (Pelea) has so far four known species; two of these are 
known to occur on Hawaii. P. bishopi and P. vicinus have been found on these trees 
by Mr. Perkins, and the first named has been met with at Puuwaawaa. P. coUaris 
occurrs on Maui, and P. diana on Kauai. 

The Ohia Lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) has four known species at least — P. 
finsclii and P. pidiillatus are on Maui, P. lanaiensis on Lanai, and P. asstivus on Molokai. 
We know that this tree is also attacked on Hawaii. 

The Ohia-ha {Eugenia sandwicensis) is affected on Kauai by P. concolor, and on the 
same island P. permundus infests the Ahakea ( Bobea sp. ) . The same trees are attacked 
on Oahu by CaUiihmysus microgaster. 

P. jXTkinsln is the insect upon the Naso {Myoporum sandwicense), on Hawaii. 
P. lamarkianus is found upon the Mamake {Pipturus albidus) on the island of Hawaii, 
whilst on Oahu, upon the same tree, an undescribed species was found. 

At Puuwaawaa we found two new species of Plagithmysus, one inhabiting the Aiea, 
{Nothocestrum breviflorum) , and the other found breeding in the Koko or Akoko 
{ Euphorbia loi-ifoUa) , a dead tree of which was found filled with larvae, which are 
rather badly parasitized. 

Another genus, of rather small Cerambycidae, lives chiefly in the dead branches 
of various trees, and as far as known they are attached to Sophora chryrophylla and 
Acacia koa. Ch/farlus filipes and C. mediocris have been found on the first-named 
tree on Hawaii and Maui, respectively. Ten species are known to infest the Koa 
tree, as follows: C. debilis, C. claviger, and C. nodifer on Hawaii; C. m.odestus, C. lati- 
collis, 9*id C. 2iennatus on Maui; Oahu has but one known species, C. fragilis, which 



FORESTS. 77 

was bred from dead branches of Koa from Nuiianu Valley. The branches were 
brought ill during December, 1898, and on January 16, 1899, there had issued seven 
beetles, together with 46 female and 25 male parasites. Again, on March 3, 1899, we 
counted 14 beetles, 110 female and 55 male parasites; all these of one species which 
is common to all the islands and is parasitic upon Plagithmysus as well. It has also 
been bred upon larvee of introduced Cerambycids. The three other species, C. 
modesim, C. loiigipes, and C. anneciens, were found by Mr. Perkins to breed upon the 
Koa tree on Kauai. 

We have bred a species of Clytarlus from trunk of Papala {Cliarpentleria obomta), 
on places where the bark had been badly eaten by cattle at Puuwaawaa. 

The above are about the first indigenous insects to appear on diseased timber trees. 
After these come a large number of various genera and species preying upon dead 
wood. As a fact, the most of the Hawaiian Coleoptera are known to live upon 
trees in such condition. In addition, larvfe of Tineidje make their ai)pearance, 
readily noticed by the webs intermixed with remains and excrement of the same. 
Usually this remains as long as the trees are in an upright condition, or until the 
last stage of their existence. 

The greatest enemies of the beautiful Hawaiian forests, the worst and most 
destructive ever introduced among tropical forests, are cattle, which will sooner or 
later but positively and entirely destroy the forests. I doubt that anything else in 
nature, ax and fire included, would have in the same space of time brought the 
once densely clothed islands to the present condition. 

If we look backward fifty or sixty years we would see the two large mountains of 
Maui met by trees on the plains; Lanai and Molokai clothed with forests; Oahu the 
same, native trees in numbers down to Honolulu; four miles or more of a dense and 
impassable virgin forest in Nuuanu Valley; the Waianae Mountains with a mantle 
of beautiful green vegetation; Kauai the fairest of all, the Lihue plains an undis- 
turbed forest, as all along the west on the windward side, and the forest on the lee- 
ward side coming down to the sea, in parts at least. We would see in places uni- 
formly running streams and ever-flowing springs. Doubtless such has been the 
condition of the islands. The changes have been brought on to the benefit of the 
very few, to the detriment of the whole island and community. To-day, especially 
on the leeward side of the island, the cancer spots are visible everywhere and grow- 
ing continuously; the grass has disapi^eared, each successive rain takes away more 
of the soil, and during the sunny days the wind is taking the same far out to sea. 
With these conditions, these barren spots will grow into barren rocks, where not even 
the denounced Lantana (the salvation plant of the islands) will grow. I tear to 
express an opinion of the state of conditions fifty years hence, yet we must trust in 
a body of men to form laws and regulations filling the demands of the islands. 
What is mostly and immediately wanted are strict laws to compel every cattle 
owner to fence in his or her cattle, and liberty to any one to take or shoot any 
animal found outside such inclosures, even paying a bonus for any such beast so 
destroyed. 

On the lower end of Puuwaawaa Ranch we find a mixed forest of a large number 
of trees, among them some of the most valuable timber, such as the sandalwood 
{Santalum freycinetianum) , the Kauwila {AlphUonia ponderosa), and many others 
growing among the lava rocks. Some four or five species of trees like the AViliwili, 
the Papalo, and other soft-wooded species, are destroyed by the cattle eating off the 
bark. 

The principal food of cattle in this district is the underbrush, breaking the rays of 
the hot sun on the lava rocks. The animals will browse upon the young trees and 
eventually destroy the same, leaving the older plants with the surface wood exposed. 

It is only a question of a few years until all the trees on such places disappear 
entirely, as may be seen by the piece of land between Mr. John McGuire's house 



<8 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

and the lava flow north, with former forest dead. It took the cattle a very few years 
to accomplish this. 

The upper part of the ranch comprises some 12,000 acres of fertile government 
land, covered with valuable forest trees, among them the famous Koa. It is here 
where we have seen the sandalwood tree over 18 inches in diameter. Five years 
ago the present leaseholder had to hew a trail to see the condition of the land; 
to-day we find a handsome open park land, so to speak, where one can ride any- 
where on horseback. I venture to say that at the expiration of the lease, twenty 
years hence, we will find an open pasture land, very much in want of moisture. 

With the kind help, and the furnishing of the native names by Mr. Low, we col- 
lected and brought down seeds of the following species of trees, now planted at the 
government nursery and at Moanalua: 

Wauke {Broussonetia papyrifera). Pua {Olea sandwicensis). 

Kauwila {Alphitonia ponderosa). Papala {Charpentiera obovata). 

Alani (Peleasp.). Pilo {Kadua grandis) . 

Aiea {Nothocestnan breviflorum) . Aalii (Dodonsea viscosa). 

Kea,,orKa\a.monii{Mezoneuronkauaiense). Awikiwiki (Canavalia galeata). 

Halapepe [Dracsena aurea). Wiliwili [Erythrina monosperma) . 

Obapa (Olapa) {Cheirodendron gaudi- Kookoolau. An ornamental, yellow-flow- 

chaudii). ering composite shrub. Also seeds of 

Hoolei ( Ochrosia sandwicensis). one of the numerous Lobeliacese. 

Iliahi {SanUdum freycinelinnum). Alahee. Can not be found in Hillebrand. 

Naio {Myoporum sandwicense) . Aa. A large tree, only known to Mr. Low 

Aulu, or Kaulu {Sideroxylon sandwicense) . in a couple of specimens. 
Mamani {Sophora chysopylla). 

Respectfully, A. Koebele, 

Entomologist. 

LABOR. 

It is difficult to treat this subject in a short article, and yet i a 
study of the agricultural conditions of the islands would be complete 
without reference to this important factor. For a half centur}' the 
resources and ingenuity of the planters of these islands have been 
taxed to their utmost in devising- the best means of procuring laborers 
suitable for their work. Special commissioners have been dispatched 
to distant parts of the globe for the purpose of securing the desired 
immigration. Earnest efforts have been made in the way of carefully 
prepared reports and extensive correspondence. Large sums of money 
have been expended for costly voj^ages in the hope of obtaining per- 
manent additions to the population of the islands which would develop 
and maintain the growing agriculture. And yet the struggle con- 
tinues. From the lirst arrival of coolies, in 1852, up to the present 
time there has been no cessation in the arduous efforts to obtain an 
adequate supply of labor for the plantations. The Royal Hawaiian 
Agricultural Society, established in 1850, issued a circular stating 
that "the introduction of coolie labor from China to supply the places 
of the rapidly decreasing native population was a subject of great 
importance.'" In 1852 the first introduction of coolies was made 
and the experiment was satisfactory. They proved able and willing 



House Doc. No. 368. 



Plate XXVII. 



22° 
15 



10' 



159° 45' 



1.59° 20' 



Anahola 




M^Hanamaulu 



159" 45' 

J.MANZ ENGRAVING CO. ,CHICA 



liae o Kawai 



159° 20' 



22 
15' 



22 
10' 



22 

5' 



House Doc. No. 368. 



22 
10' 



KAUAI 

FROM THE LATEST SURVEYS 

By 
S.M.Kanahanui. 




Jf y,,:' .hu-ili Bay 



21° 



15!if20- 



LABOR. 79 

laborers and quieted for a while all apprehension of future trouble in 
obtaining- labor. Other cargoes were soon sent for and received. 

But while the coolies were and are good workers it was soon discov- 
ered that laborers imported for plantations could not be relied upon 
as permanent settlers and homeseekers, and were therefore, from a 
state standpoint, very undesirable immigrants. The planters wanted 
laborers for profit: the King desired permanent settlers for the benefit 
of the country. To bring in immigrants required funds, which the 
former alone could supply, but they were unwilling to burden them- 
selves with the trouble and expense of families. Hence the plans of the 
King failed. In 1859 a few South Sea Islanders were landed on Kauai 
to work on a plantation under contract. They resembled Hawaiians, 
were educated, and had Christian names. It was hoped that this 
beginning would be the means, ultimately, of repopulating the islands 
and supplying the needed labor, but the hope was never realized, as 
will be shown later. In 1863 another cry for importation of labor was 
heard, but the inquiry was everywhere made: Whom and how? The 
importation of white men as laborers w^as inadmissible; ditto with 
negroes. The coolie was an undesirable citizen and as a laborer of no 
great value. Private planters would import onlj'^ men, rejecting 
women and children. Laborers could not be obtained from Pacific 
islands; therefore resort must again be had to China. 

In the meanwhile sugar production increased rapidly. New planta- 
tions were opened and more labor demanded. The statesmen decried 
plantation morals, due to the large excess of men over women; the}' 
deprecated the class of coolies imported, and appealed to the patriot- 
ism of the planters to aid the Government in introducing carefully 
selected agriculturists. 

A plan was suggested of introducing to Hawaii certain races of the 
Malav Archipelago, but the Government was without the means of 
consummating so favorable a project. In this imperative demand for 
labor the onl}^ alternative left was to introduce more coolies, which 
was done. The ''Chinese coolie system,"' as it was called at this time, 
liad an odium attached to it almost equal to that of the slave trade. It 
was reported that men had been actuall}' purchased from the man- 
darins for a few dollars each, while the contractors picked up vagrants 
and sold them at public auction in the markets of Peru and elsewhere. 
The horrors of the slave trade were in some instances repeated and 
the deported coolies often succumbed to brutal privations and hard- 
ships. Here the British Government intervened b}- the appointment 
of agents at the ports of departure to see that no laborer was taken 
away without his full consent. 

These abuses gave birth to the coolie laws of the United States, and 
simultaneously in Hawaii a bureau of immigration was established, tak- 
ing the business of importing laborers from the hands of the planters 



80 AGEICULTUEAL EESOUECES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

and placing it under the charge of the Kingdom. The Hawaiians claim 
that no such iniquity as above mentioned ever disgraced the efforts of 
their planters in their work of importing laborers. The "coolie sys- 
tem" as known elsewhere never existed on the islands; the law 
between employer and employee known as the ' ' master and servant 
law" was mild, equitable, and compulsor}' for the specific fulfillment 
of contracts. 

In 1864 the board of immigration was established for the purpose of 
superintending the importation of foreign laborers and the introduc- 
tion of immigrants. One of its first ordinances was to prohibit private 
persons from introducing laborers into the Kingdom under heav}" pen- 
alty. Another was to adopt measures looking to the introduction of 
free immigrants, males and females, from the Azores, Canaries, and 
Cape de Verde in the Atlantic, and from any of the Pacific isles. Pas- 
sages were to be paid by the Government and a bounty per head to the 
captain of the ship. Still another was the chartering of a ship to send 
to China to procure more Chinese laborers. The first ordinance gave 
great offense to the planters, but the board firmly adhered to it. 

In 1865 Dr. Hillebrand was appointed commissioner to go abroad 
and study the possibilities of obtaining desirable immigrants from 
India, Japan, and Malaysia. In the meanwhile, to meet, the present 
demands, he was first to visit China and forward a shipload or two of 
coolies to the islands. In December, 1865, the first installment of 
immigrants arrived from the Caroline Islands. The bureau sanctioned 
the contracts with the planters. Simultaneously a small number of 
Marquesans were introduced. Dr. Hillebrand simultaneouslv for- 
warded from Hongkong two shiploads of coolies. The planter ac- 
quired the needed laborer, but the people desired immigrants who 
would assimilate with them, infuse vigor into the impaired constitu- 
tions of the natives, check the decrease of the inhabitants of the King- 
dom, and give strength to the national constitution. 

King Kamahameha III saw with sorrow and alarm his people rapidly 
declining in numbers, and naturally sought some means of arresting 
this decay and permanently repeopling his dominions. To accomplish 
his purposes he authorized Mr. W3dlie to negotiate with the British 
Government with the view of obtaining consent to remove to the 
islands all of the inhabitants of Pitcairn's Island and settle them as 
proprietors or tenants on his own lands. The project unfortunately 
failed. 

In the meanwhile other coolies were introduced. 

In 1865 King Kamehameha IV, in his speech to the legislature, said 
of the coolies: ""They are not so kind and tractable as was anticipated, 
and they seem to have no affinities, attractions, or tendencies to blend 
with this or any other race." He recommended trying "the inhabit- 
ants of other Polynesian groups; they would be easily acclimated; 



LABOR. 81 

would soon learn the language, and might bring with them their wives, 
whose fecundity was much greater than that of the Hawaiian females, 
and, besides furnishing labor, would pave the way for a future popu- 
lation of native-born Hawaiians indistinguishable from the aboriginal 
parents." But Mr. Wyllie, minister of foreign atfairs, saw danger 
ahead in such a project. He feared the numerical superiority of the 
aborigines over the whites, and did not believe they would devote 
themselves willingly to work, unless under contract under the act for 
the government of "masters and servants," as was done with the 
Chinese. 

Nothing came out of this controversy. Small importations of coolies 
continued. At first their labor was very unsatisfactory. Not undei- 
standing the language nor the character of the work required, friction 
between master and servant frequent]}^ occurred. But the laborers 
graduall}^ improved. 

In 1866 occurred the convention between China, England, and 
France, at which the right to draw labor from Chinese ports was 
exclusively restricted to treaty powers. The Hawaiian Kingdom was 
not a treaty power, and therefore had to transact all future business 
under the protection of a foreign flag and through a foreign firm. 

This restriction turned again the attention of the board to Polj^nesia, 
where settlers and not mereW hands for the planters might be obtained, 
but upon further investigation the plan was abandoned. 

In 1869 two eminent persons were sent on an expedition with two 
ships to visit the various isles of the Pacific and Atlantic to secure if 
possible voluntarj^ laborers for the Kingdom. One ship returned with 
a cargo from Caroline and Humphrey islands, having visited many 
others without success. 

These immigrants were cleanly, intelligent, docile, Christian, speak- 
ing a language similar to Hawaiian. The other ship brought a cargo 
from the Danger Islands. These were far from being satisfactor}^ to 
their subsequent employers, many of whom were ultimately released 
and returned to their native islands. 

Soon after these importations another controversy arose as to the class 
of future immigrants. Great dissatisfaction was felt by the King and 
council at the large number of Chinese already in the islands, since they 
desired immigrants more nearly related to the Hawaiians. An anti- 
coolie party, consisting chiefly of mechanics and tradesmen, strongly 
opposed the further introduction of Chinese by the sugar planters. 
Mass meetings were held, with verdicts against the Chinese and in 
favor of South Sea Islanders or other races ethnologicall}^ related. 
Efl'orts were made to secure immigrants from India, Japan, and Malay- 
sia, and the Dutch and English East Indies. All proved abortive, 
after much discussion, diplomacy, and a large expenditure of time and 
money, except with Japan. After much delay and long and specitic 
H. Doc. 368 6 



82 AGEICULTUEAL EESOUECES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

contracts a shipload of Japanese reached the islands in 1869. They 
made good laborers, and were themselves satisfied and satisfactor}' to 
the emploj'ers. But the Japanese Government became alarmed 
through false rumors of maltreatment of its subjects and sent com- 
missioners to Hawaii to investigate their true conditions. To their 
surprise the,y found everything mutually pleasant and satisfactor}^ to 
both Japanese and planters. While discussions were going on in the 
board relative to the advisability of importing Swedes and Portuguese, 
several more cargoes of Chinese were introduced by the planters. A 
new and untried S3^stem of cooperative labor was introduced on a 
small scale in 1870. Thirtj^ white men from the States were carried 
over to labor on the plantations to receive as compensation one-half 
of the crop made. On account of drought, inexperience, etc., the 
cooperative experiment was far from being a decided success. The 
Hawaiian Immigration Society to promote immigration was next 
formed, but few fruits of its labors were apparent. In the mean- 
while another importation of Chinese was made, soon to be followed 
by others, many of whom on arrival went into rice culture. 

Again attention was directed to the Azores and the possibility of 
obtaining desirable immigrants therefrom. Italy was also considered 
as a source of supply of future laborers. But nothing tangible was 
accomplished. In July, 1876, the treaty of reciprocity between the 
Hawaiian Kingdom and the United States was ratified. It created 
great joy and much inspiration in every planter in the islands. Exten- 
sive improvements were undertaken at once and energetic efiorts made 
to secure more laborers. 

In 1878 the first batch of Portuguese from Madeira, secured after 
patient efforts, was landed in Honolulu, followed soon after hj a cargo 
of South Sea Islanders, all of whom proved satisfactory to the 
planters. This arrival of Portuguese proving so desirable, negotia- 
tions were made at once to introduce them on a large scale. Accord- 
ingly many vessels soon after reached Honolulu, bringing exclusively 
cargoes of Portuguese from Madeira. 

In 1881 two vessels filled with Norwegians arrived. But few of 
them were agriculturists and therefore were soon dissatisfied with life 
on plantations. 

The propriety of introducing negroes from the Southern States was 
discussed by the board, with the result of a decided opposition to the 
scheme. 

More cargoes of South Sea Islanders were introduced, followed 
soon after by several vessel loads of Germans. The islands were 
rapidly filling up with a desirable population. The Chinese and 
Japanese were for the time being neglected by the Government. 
Though neglected by the Government, the Chinese, however, came of 



LABOE. 83 

their owji accord in large numbers, until it was found necessary to 
restrict this immig-ration by suitable laws. 

In 1885, after a favorable treaty with Japan had been ratified, the 
introduction on a large scale of Japanese laborers under the contract 
S3'stem began, which continued up to the annexation of the islands to 
the United States. 

Several large cargoes of Portuguese from the Madeira Islands were 
also landed in Honolulu during the year. 

Since 1885 up to the time of annexation the introduction of Chinese, 
Japanese, and Portuguese has been made to meet the wants of the 
islands. The Japanese and Portuguese have been brought in mainly 
on contract, and having completed the time of service required by the 
latter the}'^ have either renewed service or been returned to their 
homes. The Chinese have alwaj^s come on their own accord. 

In stud34ng the histor}' of immigration to the islands it is difficult 
to conceive of a country that the bureau of immigration and the 
planters have not considered as a source of suppl}" of labor. They 
have repeatedly been disappointed, but they have persisted with a zeal 
and an energy worthy of the highest t3'pe of intelligence. 

The following, furnished by Prof. W. D. Alexander, historian and 
surve3^or-general of the islands, gives a summar3' of "immigration 
and population," which is reliable and instructive: 

IMMIGRATION AND POPULATIOX. 

The pressing demand for labor, created by the reciprocity treaty, had led to great 
changes in the population of the Hawaiian Islands. It has been the policy of the 
Government to assist immigrants from widely different countries, not only as laborers, 
but also as prospective citizens. 

In the year 1877 arrangements were made for the importation of Portuguese fami- 
lies from the Azores and Madeira, and during the next ten years about 7,000 of these 
people were brought to the islands. Others have since been added to their number, 
and their natural increase has been very rapid. At the present time the total num- 
ber of Portuguese in the islands, including those born there, is not far from 16,000. 
About 2,400 of them are employed in sugar plantations. They have shown them- 
selves to be an industrious, thrifty, and law-abiding element in the population. 

Persistent efforts have also been made to introduce Polynesian islanders, as being 
of a cognate race with the Hawiians, but the results have been wholly unsatisfactory. 
About 2,000 of these people, mainly from the Gilbert Islands, were brought in at the 
expense of the Government, between 1878 and 1884, but they did not give satisfac- 
tion, either as laborers or as citizens, and most of them have since been returned to 
their homes. 

There has never existed any treaty or labor convention between the Government 
of Hawaii and the Empire of China. In early days a limited number of Chinese 
settled in the islands, intermarried with the natives, and by their industry and 
economy were generally prosperous. About 750 of them were naturalized under the 
monarchy. The first importation of Chinese laborers into the country took place 
in 1852. In 1878 the number of Chinese had risen to 5,916. During the next few 
years there was a steady influx of Chinese free immigrants, which finally reached 



84 AGEICULTUEAL EESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

alarming proportions. In the spring of 1881 the Hawaiian Government was obliged 
to send a dispatch to the governor of Hongkong to stop this invasion. Again, in 
April, 1883, it was suddenly renewed, and within twenty days five steamers arrived 
from Hongkong, bringing 2,253 Chinese passengers, folio wed'the next month by 1,100 
more, with the news that several thousand more were ready to embark. Accord- 
ingly, the Hawiian Government sent another dispatch to the governor of Hongkong 
refusing to admit any further immigration of male Chinese from that port. 

Various regulations restricting Chinese immigration were enacted from time to 
time, until in 1886 the landing of any Chinese passenger without a passport was pro- 
hibited. The number of Chinese in the islands had risen to 21,000, and in 1899 it is 
estimated to be about 27,000, of whom about 6,000 are employed on sugar 
plantations. 

They have reclaimed many useless swamps for the cultivation of rice. Many of 
them are shopkeepers, market gardeners, laundrymen, and fishermen. They have 
been truly described as industrious, persevering, frugal, peaceable, and law abiding. 
Their mercantile credit stands as high as that of any other nationality. The princi- 
pal vices of their lower class are opium smoking and gambling. Nearly all of them 
have come from the province of Kwangtung (Canton), being divided into two clans, 
speaking different dialects, known as the Punti and Hakka tribes. 

The consent of the Japanese Government to the emigration of its subjects to- 
Hawaii was obtained with difficulty in 1884, and in 1886 a labor convention was 
ratified. Since then the increase of the Japanese element in the population has been 
constant and rapid. It rose from 116 in 1884 to 12,360 in 1890 and 24,400 in 1896, 
At the close of 1899 it is estimated to be about 58,000, of whom about 26,000 are 
employed in sugar plantations. They have for the most part been recruited from 
the lowest classes in Japan. Unlike the Chinese, they show no inclination to inter- 
marry with the Hawaiians. They may fairly be charactierized as versatile, ingenious, 
imitative, but clannish to an extreme, fickle, and vain. In regard to labor unions 
and strikes they can give points to other nationalities. Crimes of violence are more 
frequent among them than among any other race in the islands. 

The effect of annexation to the United States will be to put an end to all assisted 
immigration of whatever race, and to exclude all Chinese laborers. But under the 
recent treaty between the United States and Japan, there is nothing to limit the free 
immigration of Japanese, and several companies have been formed to promote it. 

The excessive preponderance of males over females in Asiatic immigration consti- 
tutes a serious menace to the morals and health of the commonwealth. In 1896 the 
ratio of males to females was 8 to 1 among the Chinese, nearly 5 to 1 among the 
Japanese, 8 to 7 among the Portuguese, and 8 to 5 among other whites, the propor- 
tion for all the inhabitants being 2 to 1 . 

The decrease of the aboriginal population has still continued, from 44,088 in 1878- 
to 40,014 in 1884, 34,436 in 1890, and 31,019 in 1896, the rate of decrease being about 
1.6 per cent a year. At the same time the part Hawaiians, the offspring of inter- 
marriages between Hawaiian women and men of other races, have been constantly 
increasing from 3,420 in 1878 to 4,218 in 1884, 6,186 in 1890, and 8,485 in 1896. All 
these facts point to the gradual extinction of the full-blooded Hawaiians, and the 
absorption of the remnant of the race by the European and Asiatic population. 

LAND MATTERS. 

The ancient system of land titles in the Hawaiian Islands bore a close 
resemblance to the feudal system of the Middle Ages. 

When Kamehameha I conquered the islands, he divided out the lands 
among his principal chiefs, retaining a goodly portion for himself to- 
be cultivated or managed by his own servants or attendants. 



LAND MATTEES. 85 

Each chief again divided his portion among his subordinates, who 
in time divided again among the lowest tenants. From tenant on to 
highest chief was exacted not only a land tax for use of land, but also 
service when demanded b}" the King. A failure to respond to these 
demands might forfeit the right to the lands. The King really owned 
the allodium, while the persons to whom he intrusted the land held it 
in trust. The land taxes were really a rent, and constituted the reve- 
nues of the King. Formerly every tenant was required to work one 
day in everj^ week (Tuesday) for the King and one day (Friday) for 
the landlord. Upon the accession of a new king it was customary to 
redivide and distribute the lands among his chiefs and favorites. 

The common people were merely tenants at will, and could be 
dispossessed of their lands at the pleasure of king or chief, until 
1839-iO, when laws were passed preventing evictions without cause. 
The ancient system being incompatible with progressive civilization, 
the King and chiefs decided to separate interests and define the rights 
which each held in the lands of the Kingdom. After patient investi- 
gation, it was decided to divide the lands between the King, the chiefs, 
and the tenants, and vest the titles in each. 

ORIGINAL DIVISIONS OF LAND. 

Each island was divided into moku or districts, names of which have 
alread}^ been given in the description of the islands. The subdivisions 
of a ''moku" are ''ahupuaa," which is really a unit of land in the 
islands. Its name, derived from '"ahu," an altar, and "puaa," a hog, 
referred to the ancient custom of erecting an altar at the point where 
the land intersected the main road which encircled the island, and upon 
this altar was erected the image of a hog carved out of Kukui wood. 

The typical ahupuaa is a long, narrow strip, running from the moun- 
tain to the sea, and includes the mountain, the cultivated plateau, the 
taro patches and the sea. On the windward sides, each valley consti- 
tuted a distinct ahupuaa, and was of unequal areas. These divisions 
were made generally along natural lines, such as ridges, ravines, etc. 

The ahupuaas were sometimes divided into "ills," of which there 
were two kinds, one paying tribute to the chief, while the other did 
not. 

LAND COMMISSION. 

In 1846 an act was passed providing for the appointment of a board 
of commissioners to quiet land titles. These commissioners were 
organized February, 1846, and continued till March, 1855. This board 
had full powers to investigate the claims and rights of all to the lands 
of the Kingdom. After exhaustive work, performed with great zeal, 
they gave their awards which are recorded in ten huge folios, which 
are deposited in the land office of the islands. 

The work of this board was finally brought up before the King and 



86 AGEICULTUEAL EESOUECES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

the chiefs in privy council on December 11, 1847, and after much dis- 
cussion was settled in the following resolutions December 18, 1847: 

Whereas it has become necessary to the prosperity of our Kingdom and the proper 
physical, mental, and moral improvement of our people that the undivided rights at 
present existing in the lands of our Kingdom shall be separated and distinctly defined: 

Therefore we, Kamehameha III, King of the Hawaiian Islands, and his chiefs in 
privy council assembled do solemnly resolve that we will be guided in such division 
by the following rules: 

I. His Majesty, our Most Gracious Lord and King, shall, in accordance with the 
constitution and laws of the land, retain all his private lands as his own individual 
property, subject only to the right of the tenants to have and to hold to him, his 
heirs and successors, forever. 

II. One-third of the remaining lands of the Kingdom shall be set aside as the 
property of the Hawaiian Government, subject to the direction and control of His 
Majesty, as pointed out by the constitution and laws, one-third to the chiefs or 
konohikis in proportion to their possessions, to have and to hold to them, their heirs 
and successors, forever, and the remaining third to the tenants, the actual possessors 
and cultivators of the soil, to have and to hold to them, their heirs and successors, 
forever. 

III. The division between the chiefs or konohikis and their tenants, prescribed by 
rule second, shall take place whenever any chief, konohiki, or tenant shall desire 
such division, subject to confirmation by the King in privy council. 

IV. The tenants of His Majesty's private lands shall be entitled to a fee-simple 
title to one-third of the lands possessed and cultivated by them, which shall be set 
off to the said tenants in fee simple whenever His Majesty or any of said tenants 
shall desire such division. 

V. The division prescribed in the foregoing rules shall in no wise interfere with 
any lands that may have been granted by His Majesty or his predecessors in fee 
simple to any Hawaiian subject or foreigner, nor in any way operate to the injury 
of the holders of the unexpired leases. 

VI. It shall be optional with any chief or konohiki holding lands in which the 
Government has a share, in the place of setting aside one-third of the said lands as 
Government property, to pay into the treasury one-third of the unimproved value of 
said lands, which payment shall operate as a total extinguishment of the Govern- 
ment right in said lands. 

VII. All the lands of His Majesty shall be recorded in a book entitled "Register 
of the lands belonging to Kamehameha III, King of the Hawaiian Islands," and 
deposited with the registry of land titles in the office of the minister of the interior, 
and all lands set aside as the lands of the Hawaiian Government shall be recorded in 
a book entitled ' ' Register of the lands belonging to the Hawaiian Government, ' ' and 
fee-simple titles shall be granted to all other allottees upon the award of the board of 
commissioners to quiet land titles. 

After some litigation and some patience, the lands were divided and 
titles confirmed in accordance with above resolutions and the divisions 
recorded in the "Mahele Book." 

The following are the approximate results of this division: 

Acres. 

Government lands 1, 495, 000 

Crown lands 984, 000 

Chiefs' lands 1,619,000 

Kuleanas (ordinary tenants) lands 28, 600 

Total 4, 126, 600 



LAND MATTEKS. 87 

The area assigned the kuleanas or ordinary tenants was compara- 
tively very small, but included some of the choicest lands in the islands. 
In the awards to tenants the latter were permitted to take water, wood, 
thatch, and ti leaf from the lands on which they lived for their own 
purposes. They also had the right to catch fish from the sea appurte- 
nant to the land and sell the same. In default of heirs the tenants' 
lands reverted to the owner of the ahupuaa from which it was origi- 
nally escheated. 

As the chiefs generally ran into debt and died in many cases with- 
out heirs, their lands have largely passed into the hands of foreigners. 

Upon the abolition of the monarchy in 1893 the Crown lands were 
declared to be public lands and are now held, together with other 
Government lands, by the United States. The Crown lands, made 
inalienable by law in 1865, have hitherto been held for the most part 
under long leases. The biennial report of the commissioner of Crown 
lands gives situation, description, price paid for lease, expiration of 
lease, and names of lessees of all the Crown lands. The policy to be 
pursued when their leases expire is not yet definitely settled. Many 
of them are held by sugar estates and are yielding maximum acre 
results. If it be desirable to break up these large holdings into home- 
steads and encourage the growth of an agricultural population, the 
aggregate income of the islands will be greatly diminished, though a 
permanent agricultural population will be secured. 

Directly after the division given above, the Government began the 
sale of its public lands at private sale and at low rates of 12 cents to 
$1 per acre. The lands were selected and surveyed by the purchaser 
and many thousands of the best acres of Government lands were thus 
early disposed of at nominal prices, leaving numerous scattered rem- 
nants of undesirable and unsalable lands throughout the islands. At 
least 500,000 acres were thus disposed of, mainly to the natives. 

An act was passed in 1876 requiring all sales and leases of public 
lands over $300 in value to be sold at public auction, and the provi- 
sional government in 1893 required all sales and leases of every kind 
to be made at public auction after thirty days' notice. 

HOMESTEAD LAWS. 

The first homestead act to acquire small holdings was passed in 1884. 
It was amended several times, but remained in force until the passage 
of the land act of 1895. It gave the privilege of acquiring lots not 
over 20 acres in extent, payable in ten years, and requiring the erec- 
tion of a dwelling and a residence of three years on the land. A sub- 
stitute might reside on land with the consent of the minister of the 
interior, as amended in 1892. Under these homestead laws 527 per- 
sons took up 8,490,81 acres, valued at $62,794.55, of which patents 
have been granted to 377 persons for 5,820.76 acres, valued at 



88 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

^45,312.30, leaving the remainder yet to be patented. Under the 
amendment '■'" without residence" there have been taken up 3,552.84 
acres, valued at $10,610.63, of which 2,942.44 acres, valued at 
18,023.13, have been patented. The results of these homestead laws 
were beneficial in placing homes, which have been greatly improved, 
into the possession of numerous families of moderate means. They 
did not, however, meet all of the requirements, hence these laws 
were supplanted by the land act of 1895, which consists briefly as 
follows: 

Part I. Interpretation of words and terms used in the act. 

Part II. General provisions, classification of lands into (1) agricul- 
tural, (2) pastoral, (3) pastoral agricultural, (4) forest, and (5) waste 
land. 

Part III. General administration, designating board of commission- 
ers and defining duties, and dividing the islands into land districts. 

Part IV. Land patents, how sales shall be made and patents issued, 
and disposition of processes of sales. 

Part V. General leases. 

Part VI. Homestead leases. 

Part VII. Right of purchase, leases, and cash freeholds. 

Part Vni. Settlement associations. 

Part IX. Olaa reservation. 

Part X. Puukapu, Kaimu, and Waiakolea reservations and native 
reservations of Olaa. 

Part XL Repealing all former acts. 

THE LAND ACT OF 1895. 

The following paper, prepared at m}' request b}" Mr. J. F. Brown, 
commissioner of public lands for Hawaii, explains the operations of the 
above act, -and gives valuable statistical data relative to the public 
lands of the islands: 

To promote the settlement and improvement of the remaining Government land, 
mider conditions favorable to the settler, but not to speculators, and to meet the 
needs of different classes desiring lands, the land act of 1895 was enacted as being 
specially adapted to the requirements of the case. 

An important feature of this fact was the general requirement of cultivation and 
improvement of lands taken up, as well as residence thereon for a term of years. 
There was authority, however, under the act for the sale of lands at auction under 
special conditions, as to payments for same and cultivation without residence, to meet 
the cases of persons who desired to improve and cultivate land, but having occupa- 
tions elsewhere were unable to live on the same. 

METHODS OF ACQUIRING LAND UNDER THE LAND ACT OF 1895. 

General qualifications required of ajypKcants. — Must be over 18 years of age, be citizen 
by birth or naturalization, or have letters of denization, be under no civil disability 
nor delinquent in payment of taxes. 

Homestead lease. — Nine hundred and ninety-nine year lease, conditions upon main- 



LAND MATTEBS. 



89 



taining a home ui^on the premises, paying taxes, and cultivating small percentage 
areas that might be required, 8 to 45 acres, dependent upon quality; no payments 
other than small application fees; husband and wife might not both be applicants; 
applicant must not be owner of other land (except taro or wet land); lease inalien- 
able; not subject to attachment, levy or sale, or to any process of the courts, might 
not be mortgaged, assigned, or sublet. 

R'ujht of purchase lease. — Lease for twenty-one years with right to purchase at 
original appraised value any time after two years' residence and cultivation of 25 per 
cent; area that might be acquired, 100 to 1,200 acres, dependent on quality; husband 
and wife might not both be applicants; applicants could apply for only such amount 
as taken with any lands owned by them would come to the limits name; rental at 8 
per cent on appraised value to be paid until purchase was made. 

Cash freeholds. — Lands sold at auction at an appraised value as upset price; pur- 
chase price due in four installments during three years; two years' residence and 25 
per cent of cultivation further required to perfect title; qualifications and areas that 
might be acquired same as under right of purchase lease. 

Special agreements. — Sale at auction under special conditions as to payment by 
installments, with requirements of cultivation, with or without residence limit of 
area that might be sold under special agreement, 600 acres. (Practically the area 
has been limited to 100 acres of first-class land, as under the other systems. ) 

Cash sales. — Sales made unconditionally for cash at public auction. These sales 
usually made to meet cases where exceptionally costly improvements were contem- 
plated, as buildings, reservoirs, pumping machinery, etc. 

Olaa district sales. — Special sales, at a value appraised in the act of 1895, of lands 
held under Crown leases in the district of Olaa, Hawaii. Lessee could purchase his 
leasehold up to 200 acres when 15 per cent of same had been put under cultiva- 
tion and further improvements to the value of $200 made; distinct from the general 
systems of the land act and applying only to the Olaa district. 

Summary of transactions under the land act of 1895. 



Lands taken up. 



Number. 



Acres. 



Value. 



Homestead leases 

Right of purchase leases 

Cash freeholds 

Special agreements 

Cash sales 

Olaa district sales 

Total 



115 
356 

23 
122 

40 
142 



1,549.56 
18, 665. 78 
783. 82 
7,066.17 
2, 996. 89 
15, 532. 00 



1 So, 000. 00 

118, 665. 56 

4,117.54 

50, 689. 06 

39, 923. 73 

61,171.00 



798 



46,594.22 



279, 566. 89 



1 Value of homestead-lease land is an arbitrary estimate. 
the law. 



Formal appraisement not required under 



A comparison of transactions during the period 1884-1895 with those of the period 
from 1895 (under "land act") shows for the latter period a very much larger pro- 
portion of lands taken up under conditions of homestead or improvement as compared 
with "cash sales." 

Transactions during 1884-1895 {eleven years). 



Lands taken up. 


Acres. 


Value. 


•Cash sales 


37,67.5.34 
12,043.65 


S195, 588. 95 




73,405.18 






Total 


49, 718. 99 


268,994.13 







90 AGKICULTUKAL EESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

Under land act of 1895 {four yearS). 



Lands taken up. 


Acres. 


Value. 


Cash sales 


2, 996. 89 
43,597.33 


839,923.73 
239, 643. 16 


Under homestead or improvement conditions 






Total 


46,594.22 


279, 566. 89 







The land act of 1895 has proved well suited to the condition in the Hawaiian 
Islands. Under it the demand for public land has been active, and fair prices have 
been realized for the benefit of the public treasury. 

Speculation and land grabbing has been minimized and a marked improve- 
ment and development of lands taken is evident. The success of the act would not 
be questioned by any impartial observer familiar with the facts. 

The extremely varied quality of the lands, the intermingling of public and private 
lands, and the special needs of the people, together with the duty of best utilizing 
the limited public domain required land laws drawn to meet such special conditions, 
and these, in all essential points, have been met by the land act of 1895. 

GENEEAL LEASES. 

The foregoing statements have been applied to those lands directly sold or taken 
up under conditions looking to ultimate purchase. It remains to consider the 
question of lands held under leases for terms of years, upon the expiration of which 
all interest of lessee terminates. 

From the time of the great division of 1848 to the present time the policy of the 
leasing lands for a term of years has been pursued, both in the case of the Govern- 
ment lands and of the Crown lands controlled by the commissioners for the same. 

In 1876 the first law requiring sale of Government leases to be made at auction 
was enacted, but such law did not apply to the Crown lands, which were not put 
under this regulation until the passage of the land act of 1895. 

Under the lease policy lands were freely leased both by the Government and by the 
Crown commissioners in large areas and for long terms, but in 1891 the Government, 
while continuing the policy of leasing land, improved upon former methods by 
reserving to itself the right to take up any portion of the leased land suitable for 
settlement, which reservation proved later of much value. 

This policy was continued after the passage of the land act of 1895, but with 
stricter regard to amounts leased, terms of lease, and reservations necessary for 
public interest. 

Until the date of the land act of 1895 the Crown lands were leased without auction 
sale, in such amounts and for such terms of years (until limited by law in 1865 to 
thirty years) as the commissioners approved, and although by the land act of 1895 
these lands were merged in the general domain of public lands and became subject 
to that act, practically they had nearly all been leased in large tracts and for long 
terms without reservation. 

As between the two classes of land, therefore, now constituting the public lands, 
the former Crown lands are more generally encumbered with long-term leases. 

VALUE OF LEASE SYSTEM. 

Although the old method of leasing was shortsighted and with little or nothing 
to commend it, a proper lease system is of distinct value. 

Numerous tracts of land are found of which it is difficult to estimate agricultural 
possibilities, if indeed any exist. Other tracts, owing to the intermingling of public 
and private lands and the fragmentary character of some of the public lands, are so 



LAND MATTEKS. 



91 



surrounded by private lands owned or controlled by a single party that the sale of 
the same would be at a distinct disadvantage to the Government, and result only in 
swelling the holdings of already large owners at an adequate price. 

Practically it is found that many persons will pay a rental representing a larger 
value than the purchase price that could be obtained. 

A lease, therefore, may be made to return the best results in revenue, while a 
reservation of the right to take up portions suitable for settlement leaves the way 
open at any time for such use if later conditions require it. 

The revenue from rent of lands has steadily increased, although the area of lands 
leased has in the same period been reduced by many thousands of acres. In 1890- 
1898 the annual rent roll. Government and Crown lands, was as follows: 1890, 
§80,268; 1894, $91,983; 1898, $95,225. Town lots, buildings rented, etc., are not 
included. The additional income from such sources is about 134,000 annually. 

Under the land act of 1895 general leases were limited to a term not longer than 
twenty-one years. 

Leases might not contain any privilege of renewal, nor be made for any land on 
w'hich an unexpired term of two years remained. 

The commissioners of public lands could impose conditions necessary in the public 
interest. 

TRANSACTIONS SINCE JULY 7, 1898. 

The Newlands resolution, passed by Congress July 7, 1898, for the annexatioii of 
the Hawaiian Islands, created much uncertainty as to the status of the public lands 
and the laws governing them. Upon the understanding and belief, however, that 
the laws of the United States relative to public lands did not apply to such lands in 
the Hawaiian Islands, and that the local land laws were to remain in force pending 
further action of Congress, the usual transactions of the land office were continued 
until September 28, 1899, the date of receipt of the executive order of President 
McKinley suspending further transactions. The following table shows lands taken 
up from July 7, 1898, to September 28, 1899: 



Lands taken up. 



Number. 



Value. 



Homestead leases 

Right of purchase leases 

Cash freeholds 

Special agreements 

Cash sales 

Olaa patents under Part IX of land act 

Total 



551.50 
4, 507. 09 
67.82 
1,035.87 
1,172.69 
7,999.39 



0) 

S22, 239. 75 

169.54 

7,821.00 

18, 719. 00 

29, 177. 57 



234 



15, 334. 26 



78, 126. 



iXot appraised. 

Land patents issued since July 7, 1898. 

Number 199 

Acres 12,534.53 

Value $67,821.54 



Of the above amount, patents for 11,643 acres, valued at $48,548.54, were issued in 
completion of agreements made prior to the annexation resolution of July 7, 1898. 

General leases since July 7, 1898. 

Number 8 

Acres 1, 856. 86 

Rental (yearly) $2, 847. 00 



92 AGEICULTUEAL BESOUECES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

Remaining public lands. 

Acres. 
Combined area of Government and Crown lands (by the 

original division in 1848), as near as can be determined. 2, 479, 600. 00 
Patents and deeds have been issued for 728, 200. 00 

Remainder (including lots taken up, but not yet pat- 
ented) 1,751,400.00 

Old homesteads 2, 670. 05 

Old special-agreement sales 610. 40 

Under land act (not patented) 28, 065. 33 

31, 345. 78 

Total remaining 1, 720, 054. 22 

The remainder (1, 720, 055 acres) of pul^lie land may be roughly classified as folloM's: 

Acres. 

Valuable building lots 145 

Cane lands 25,626 

Rice lands 977 

Coffee lands 26,825 

Grazing lands 448, 200 

. High forest lands 681,282 

Rugged, inaccessible mountain 227, 000 

Barren (of nominal value only) 310, 000 

Total 1,720,055 

The above classification is of necessity somewhat arbitrary. As stated in my 
report of 1894 — 

The lack of positive knowledge of quality and adaptability of the soil in untried 
sections and the imperceptible gradations by which the best land merges into the 
indifferent and indifferent into that of nominal value only makes a report of this 
nature to a considerable extent a matter of personal opinion rather than of scientific 
certainty. 

It is probable that much classed above as " grazing land " and "high forest land" 
will be found later to have good agricultural possibilities, these lands being now 
practically undeveloped. 

THE CROWN LANDS. 

Bj'- article 95 of the constitution of the Republic of Hawaii that portion of the public 
domain known as "Crown land" was declared to be the property of the Hawaiian 
Government, and to be free and clear of any trust of or concerning the same, and 
from all claim of any nature whatever upon the rents, issues, and profits thereof. 
All existing valid leases were declared to be confirmed. 

By the land act of 1895 these lands were included with other Government lands 
under the general head of public lands. 

The following extract, by permission, from "A brief history of Hawaiian land 
titles," by W. D. Alexander, surveyor-general, is a concise history of these lands 
prior to the establishment of the Republic of Hawaii: 

The term " Crown lands " is here applied to those lands reserved by Kamehameha 
III, March 8, 1848, "for himself, his heirs, and successors forever," as his private 
property. To these may be added a few lots in Honolulu and Lehaina, awarded to 
him by the land commission, award 10806. 

It is admitted by all that both Kamehameha III and his successors dealt with 
these lands as their private property, selling, leasing, or mortgaging the same at 
pleasure. These royal deeds of sale constitute titles equally valid with royal patents. 



LAND MATTERS. 93 

At the death of Kamehameha IV it was decided by the supreme court that under 
the above-mentioned instrument, executed by Kamehameha III, reserving the 
Crown lands, and under the confirmatory act of June 7, 1848, "the inheritance is 
limited to the successors to the throne," "the wearers of the crown which the con- 
queror had won," and at the same time "each successive possessor may regulate and 
dispose of the same according to his will and i^leasure as private property, in like 
manner as was done by Kamehameha III." (Hawaiian Reports, vol. 2.) 

Afterwards an act was passed, January 3, 1865, "to relieve tlie royal domain from 
incumbrances and to render the same inalienable." 

This act provided for the redemption of the mortgages on the estate and enacted 
that the remaining lands are to be "henceforth inalienable and shall descend to the 
heirs and successors of the Hawaiian Crown forever," and that "it shall not be law- 
ful hereafter to lease said lands for any term of years to exceed thirty. " " The board 
of commissioners of Crown lands shall consist of three persons, to be appointed by 
His Majesty the King, two of whom shall be appointed from among the members of 
his cabinet council and serve without remuneration and the other shall act as land 
agent and shall be paid out of the revenues of the said lands such sum as may be 
agreed to by His Majesty the King." 

SETTLEMENT OF THE CLAIM OF R. KEELIKOLANI, AS HEIR OF KAMEHAMEHA V. 

Under date of September 13, 1880, Ruth Keelikolani, as heir of Kamehameha V, 
released and quitclaimed to Claus Spreckles, for consideration of $10,000, all her title 
and interest in "the lands reserved by Kamehameha III as his own private property, 
commonly called and known as the ' Crown lands.' " (Recorded in book 64, p. 342, 
registry office. ) 

By act of Hawaiian legislature, approved July 21, 1882, for the satisfaction of the 
claim of Claus Spreckles to an undivided moiety of the Crown lands, by virtue of a 
conveyance from Ruth Keelikolani, the commissioners of Crown lands were authorized 
to make proper deeds, and the minister of interior to issue and deliver a royal patent 
to said Claus Spreckles for the " Ahupuaa of Wailuku, Maui, and His" therein or 
thereunto belonging, containing about 24,000 acres. 

Before the execution of such deed and assurances said Claus Spreckles to relinquish 
and quitclaim all his right and interest in residue of Crown lands. 

August 11, 1882, Claus Spreckles and wife released and quitclaimed to the com- 
missioners of Crown lands undivided moiety or interest claimed by him in, to, or out 
of the lands known as Crown lands, more particularly the lands conveyed to grantor 
by Ruth Keelikolani, September 13, 1880. (Recorded in book 76, p. 198, in registry 
of deeds. ) 

Augu'^: 11, 1882, the commissioners of Crown lands grant and convey to Claus 
Spreckles the Ahupuaa of Wailuku, Maui, and the His thereunto belonging, in 
accordance with act of legislature, approved July 21, 1882. (Recorded in book 75, p. 
282, registry office. ) 

September 30, 1882, patent grant 3343 issued by minister of interior to Claus 
Spreckles for the Ahupuaa of Wailuku and His thereto belonging, containing 24,000 
acres, more or less. 

SUPPLEMENTARY. 

Honolulu, August 13, 1900. 
The area of public land of this date is about 1,700,000 acres, but of this area a large 
amount is of such absolutely barren quality that it can not be regarded as suited to 
any agricultural purpose. There is also a large area so rugged and inaccessible that 
its occupation for agricultural purposes is very unlikely. Much of the best land, 
more particularly those formerly known as Crown lands, are covered by leases made 
years ago. 



94 AGEICULTUEAL EESOUECES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

It is the policy of the land office to open up lands for settlement whenever the 
expiration of an old lease gives opportunity to do so and as rapidly as surveys can be 
made, which, owing to the heavy jungle and rough nature of much of the country, 
are tedious and expensive. The question of suitable roads adds greatly to the diffi- 
culty of opening lands, as much of the public land lies from existing roads. In the 
nature of the case, the division and settlement of public lands must be a gradual 
jirocess. 

In a general way it may be said that the lands suited to cane culture and rice 
growing are well occupied at this time. 

Coffee lands are to be had, l)ut coffee planters in general appear to be discouraged 
at the outlook, and are seeking other uses for their land. 

The banana industry is hampered, except on the island of Oahu, by lack of direct 
communication with the United States. 

Small farming (of general farm products) is at present in a "tentative" condition, 
there being at present but little positive data from which to draw conclusions. 

J. F. Brown, 
Commissioner of Public Lands. 

August 13, 1900. 

EXPERIMENT STATION. 

A brief resume of the facts recorded above will show in an unmis- 
takable manner the absolute necessity for an experiment station on the 
islands. 

The sugar industry dominates all other interests and constitutes the 
chief money crop of the islands. It is operated mainly by corporations 
which run large estates and cultivate sugar extensively, no attention 
being given to other and secondary crops. Neither the laborer nor 
the stock used on the plantation is maintained by the products of the 
estate, feed, food, etc., being imported and paid for in current values. 

These corporations are divided into shares which are marketable 
under the provisions of their charters, and are subject to daily fluctu- 
ations upon the stock exchange in Honolulu, and bear no necessary 
relation to the state or value of the estate. These corporations live or 
sink solelj^ by sugar. They must pay their way or close up. When 
the tariff bill of 1890 passed Congress, placing raw sugars on the free 
list and giving a bounty to the domestic producers, thus depriving 
Hawaii of the benefits of the reciprocitj^ treaty, the great agencies and 
plantations of Hawaii tottered to their fall. Some fell; others were 
saved by outside capital. A labor crisis, a prolonged quarantine, or a 
suspension of ocean traffic would work sore disaster even to those 
estates which have enormous capital, since at no time is there a super- 
abundance of food for man and beast, either in the pantries of the 
plantations or in the stores of Honolulu. To maintain the fertility of 
the soil where only one crop is grown, and that in maximum quantities 
biennially, requires great sagacity. On the estate the one thought is 
how to keep the average quality of land from going out of cultivation. 
How can expenses be reduced and crops enhanced so as to secure the 
largest dividends on stock is the object of their existence. 



EXPERIMENT STATION. 95 

Such estates are destructive of family ties and home comforts; single 
men are always preferred and objection made to the incumbrances 
and expenses of women and children. Hence, adaptabilit}" of Asiatics 
to such work, who serve their contract time and then return to China 
or Japan, or rush to the cities or towns to engage in urban pursuits. 
Such estates are not conducive to permanent settlers — steady yeo- 
manry, prosperous farmers — which are regarded as the pride and 
reliance of every nation. 

In the islands a strong antagonism prevails against such estates, and 
a demand is made that the large areas formerly owned by the Crown 
and now leased to the sugar corporations shall be divided and sub- 
divided, at the expiration of lease, into homesteads for occupanc}' by 
permanent farmers or gardeners. 

On the contrar}', it may be stated that there is probably no industry 
besides sugar that can give such enormous acre yields in money and 
bear the heavy cost of expensive irrigation plants, steam plows, etc. 
The exports of the island were last year $22,628,741, of which over 
$22,000,000 was furnished by sugar. Again, these large acre yields 
give enormous taxable values to the lands, from which public revenues 
are raised for public improvements, public schools, etc. 

It is therefore a question of serious moment whether the present 
conditions will be improved by the establishment of small farmers, 
market gardeners, dairymen, stockbreeders, etc., over the islands. I 
believe that the experiment station can aid largely in paving the way 
and inaugurating the proper methods upon which these smaller 
industries must be established, in order that they may (if ever) suc- 
cessfully supplant the present large estates. Again, these estates 
employ over 40,000 laborers, concentrated upon about 100,000 acres 
of land, engaged in an intensive industrj^, capable of giving support to 
more people within a given area than any other agricultural industry. 
Will the present population be decreased by the change ? 

IRRIGATION. 

As practiced upon the islands, irrigation has been shown to be very 
wasteful. The quantity of water used on the various plantations has 
been found to be as high as 3,600 to 5,600 pounds to every pound of 
sugar grown. Dr. Maxwell has found, in his careful experiments, 
that the crops of 1898 and 1899 required, respectively, 865 and 859 
pounds of water per pound of sugar grown. These figures tell the 
story, and call for urgent reform and economy of an element so valu- 
able as water within the irrigated districts. Different plants are known 
to thrive at different elevations. Since water is the most variable factor 
concerned in plant growth at different elevations on the islands (tem- 
perature and soil varying bat little), an experiment station may sub- 



96 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

serve a most useful purpose in accurately determining the water 
requirements of the different plants, fruits, and vegetables which may 
be grown on the islands. 

BICE CULTURE. 

The primitive methods already described as practiced by the Chinese 
in the growing of rice and its preparation for market call loudly for 
reform. The annual production of this crop is about 10,000,000 
pounds, a part of which is consumed on the islands. The size of the 
crop, together with the fact that it constitutes the chief food of a large 
portion of the laborers on the islands, would justify serious attempts 
in introducing improved methods. The plow, harrow, grain drill, and 
harvester ought to be profitabl}^ introduced in the field, and an up-to- 
date rice mill supplant the crude water mill of the Chinese. An 
experiment station, if the director be informed on rice culture, could 
assist greatly in introducing these improvements. 

STOCK RAISING. 

The inferior stock elsewhere described and the primitive methods 
of preparing it for market can be used as a basis for extensive experi- 
ments by the station. Accurate feeding experiments and the growing 
of suitable forage crops; the introduction of the best types of beef 
cattle, mutton sheep, and bacon hog, and the judicious crossing of 
them upon selected native stock are experiments badl}" needed to guide 
and instruct the stock raisers and graziers of the islands. Stock rais- 
ing of every kind must be largely increased on the islands, since the 
suppl}^ is now insufficient to meet the demands. Who knows but that 
the fertile plains which now yield so bountifully in sugar when prop- 
erly irrigated may not under similar treatment produce enormous 
crops of alfalfa or some other legume which will solve the profitable 
raising of stock on the islands ? 

POULTRY. 

Enormous quantities of ducks are raised by the Chinese upon the 
edges of the ocean. Twice a day, within restricted areas, they are 
permitted to eat the 3"oung fish which swim in the inclosed adjacent 
coves. Fish are reported to be growing scarcer every year, and by 
some this diminution is attributed to the wholesale destruction of young 
fry by the ducks of the Chinese. Be this as it may, the duck experi- 
ments by the Chinese demonstrate the feasibility of growing poultry 
extensively on the islands. Chickens and eggs are excessivel}^ high 
and are raised on the islands in very limited quantities, the bulk of 
the latter coming from China. It is believed that the poultry industry 
could be largely developed by proper experiments conducted by an 
experiment station. 



EXPERIMENT STATION. 97 



VEGETABLES. 



Enoiiofh has been done to demonstrate the fact that at some altitudes 
somewhere on the ishmds every vegetable known to modern gardens 
can be successfully grown. The letters of Mr. Buchholtz and Governor 
Dole, together with the testimony of hundreds of others, fully attest this 
assertion, yet Honolulu derives her main supply from San Francisco, 
the rest being furnished by the Chinese, who grow their vegetables in 
the lower lying areas of the islands adjoining their rice and taro patches. 
It was found, moreover, that the varieties cultivated b}^ them were not 
of the improved kinds distributed by our large seed houses. Coupling 
location and indifferent varieties together may account for the failure 
to produce all of the vegetables needed in Honolulu in close proximity 
to this city. 

Several settlements of American farmers have been made in Oahu 
and Hawaii with a view to developing the vegetable and fruit indus- 
tries. Those on the former island have every reason for success. 
Transportation facilities and high commissions, as described by Mr. 
Buchholtz elsewhere, maj" prevent a realization of profits on the latter, 
but the big island has the reputation of growing the largest and best 
of all kinds of vegetables. 

FRUITS. 

Experimental work in fruits is most inviting, both on account of the 
diversity of kinds and the excellence of quality which can be grown 
on the islands. Up to the present onh^ home orchards of limited areas 
and of few varieties have been grown, l)ut these have demonstrated 
the capacity of the islands to produce a large number of subtropical 
and tropical fruits. Elsewhere mention has been made of the kinds 
which have been tested and the probabilit}^ of their being grown suc- 
cessfully at some elevation or location somewhere on the islands. It is 
in the province of an experiment station to test all varieties at different 
elevations and under different exposures, with and without irrigation. 
It may be found that each fruit has its own peculiar zone, its prefer- 
able side of the islands, and a definite need of water, all of which may 
be determined by the station. 

COFFEE CULTURE. 

No systematic methods have ever been pursued in coffee culture, and 
it is highl}^ probable that careful scientific experiments with this berry 
ma}^ prove highly profitable not only to the coffee growers of Hawaii 
but to the rest of the world. 

Kona coffee has a world-wide reputation, commanding twice the 
price in the markets of Brazilian varieties. It should be more exten- 
sively grown and selection should be made of trees, and the conditions 
H. Doc 868 7 



98 AGRICULTUKAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

well established by which this reputation was made, in order that the 
excellence of this variety may be propagated with certainty, and 
perhaps yearly improved. The present low price of coffee, the 
encroachment of sugar plantations upon coffee estates, due to the more 
profitable culture of the former; the absence of the knowledge of tlie 
proper environments for the best development of coffee, and the 
existence now and then of blight, have all conspired to discourage the 
growth of this plant, and accordingly areas and 3delds have gradually 
decreased in the last few years. This industry should be resuscitated, 
and the experiment station can do much toward its revival. 

DAIRY INDUSTRY. 

But little butter is made on the islands, and milk is sold at such 
prices as to prohibit its extensive use. A model dair}^ for instruction 
in the best methods should at once be established by the station. 
Dairy rations for cows, and how to grow the most of the foods entering 
therein, is also a part of the instruction to be afforded by the station. 

From the above it will be seen what the work of an experiment 
station located on these islands should be. 

LOCATION OF THE STATION. 

After careful consultation with the board of trustees of both the 
Sugar Planters' Association and the Kamehameha Manual School, it 
was decided that a union of the experiment station with either of the 
above was undesirable. The former is excellently equipped and well 
officered, and will relieve this station of the necessity of studying the 
islands' greatest staple. 

It was also found that the land around Honolulu was so exorbitantly 
high as to preclude the possibility of buying a sufficient quantity for 
station purposes. 

An examination of the Government lands revealed the fact that a 
tract of 222 acres, running from the base of Punch Bowl (PI. XXII, 
fig. 2) well up to the top of Tantalus, had been surveyed and set aside 
for an experiment station by the minister of the interior, in June, 1893, 
in accordance with section 7, act to establish a bureau of agriculture 
and forestry, approved Januar}^ 4, 1893. 

The upper portion of this tract was at once utilized in experiments 
in forestry, which are to-day continued under the commissioner of 
agriculture. The lower portion, designed for an experiment station, 
has never been utilized for want of the necessary funds and the reser- 
vation by the bureau of agriculture and forestry prevented its occu- 
pancy by settlers, who have located up to the very edge of the tract. 

The ground is covered with a dense and luxuriant growth of Lantana- 
camara, a native of the subtropical regions of South America, intro- 
duced in 1858, but now well naturalized and scattered over all of the 



EXPERIMENT STATION. 99 

islands. To clear the g-roiind of this pest will cost from $10 to $1.> 
per acre. Besides Lantana there are some few trees of Algaroba {Pro- 
mpix juJIilora) ^wd cactus [Oprmtia tuna). These can be easily and 
cheaply removed. It w^ill probably be necessarj^ to fence a consider- 
able portion of this ground prior to cultivation. 

EaUIPMENT AND ORGANIZATION. 

There will be needed on this farm the following buildings and 
equipment: 

Estimated cost. 

Director's house %A, 000 

Foreman's house 2, 000 

Laborers' quarters 2, 000 

Horse stable with feed rooms 1 , 000 

General barn 1 , 000 

Cattle stable 1, 000 

Fences, pumps, etc 500 

Laboratories and equipment 3, 000 

Dairy and equipment 1, 000 

Total cost 15, 500 

In estimating for buildings it must be remembered that in Honolulu 
lumber is worth $30 to $50 per thousand feet and brick $24 to $30 
per thousand. Carpenters and masons receive from $2.50 to $5 per 
da}'. It is possible that the above buildings may be erected at a cost 
slightly below the above estimate. 

There will also be needed as a part of the equipment of the farm at 
least — 

8 horses, worth ?i600 

6 head of cattle, worth 600 

Wagons, tools, implements, etc. , worth 200 

Total 1, 400 

These buildings can be erected at once or as the funds of the station 
ma}' permit. 

After due consideration of the environments of this station and the 
wants of the islands, I am persuaded that the following staff ^w\\\ be 
required: A director, a chemist, a biologist, an horticulturist, and a 
farm foreman. 

The Territory of Hawaii in conjunction with the Planters' Associa- 
tion employs a very competent entomologist, Prof. A. Koebele, and 
therefore there is no immediate necessity of such a scientist for this 
station. There are several very competent veterinarians in Honolulu 
whose services can be obtained when desired. 

To connect the station officially with the Territory and to insure for 
it the full measure of local sympathy and support, I recommend that 
a local advisory board, consisting of the governor, the commissioner 



100 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES, ETC., OF HAWAII. 

of agriculture and forestiy, and the commissioner of public lands be 
appointed, which shall have such powers delegated to it in the manage- 
ment and control of the station, in conjunction with the director, as the 
Secretary of Agriculture may prescribe. The present occupants of 
these positions have been consulted and will readil}^ assume such duties 
pertaining to this station as may be prescribed by the honorable Sec- 
retary of Agriculture. They are enthusiastic in the interest of the 
proposed station, as manifested by their personal courtesies during my 
recent visit, and will, I am sure, use every effort possible to make it 
a grand success. Their official positions will also enable them to create 
popular public favor on behalf of the station among the inhabitants of 
the islands, while their private interests, patriotic zeal, and personal 
integrity give assurance of honest action and faithful service in their 
official relations to the station. 

SUMMARY OF LINES OF WORK. 

The lines of work specially recommended are: 

(1) Raising of vegetables — 

(a) For home markets. 

(b) Variety tests. 

(c) For winter use on the Pacific coast of the United States. 

(2) Raising of fruit — 

(a) Strawberries, grapes, etc., with a view to determining 

how best to obtain them throughout the year. 
(h) Tropical and subtropical varieties. 

(c) Testing commercial value. 

(d) Introduction and testing of new kinds. 

(3) Raising of forage crops — 

(a) Leguminous. 

(h) Grasses. 

(c) Sorghum and similar forage crops. 

(4) Raising and fattening stock for market. 

(5) A small dairy, to illustrate the possibility of supplying the home 

demand for butter. 

(6) Experiments in coffee culture, e. g. , variety, conditions of growth, 

shade, half shade, or open; fertilizers; amount of water re- 
quired, etc. 

(7) Study of the economical use of water. 

(8) A study of the forest areas in their relation to the water supply 

of the islands. 

(9) Improved planting and culture of rice. 

(10) Poultry experiments. 

O 



Library of Congress 
Branch Bindery, 1901 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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